Creep and Shrinkage Effect on Reinforced Concrete Slab-and-Beam Structures

In this paper a solution to the bending problem of reinforced concrete slab-and-beam structures including creep and shrinkage effect is presented. The adopted model takes into account the resulting in-plane forces and deformations of the plate as well as the axial forces and deformations of the beam, due to combined response of the system. The analysis consists of isolating the beams from the plate by sections parallel to the lower outer surface of the plate. The forces at the interface, which produce lateral deflection and in-plane deformation to the plate and lateral deflection and axial deformation to the beam, are established using continuity conditions at the interface. The influence of creep and shrinkage effect relative to the time of the casting and the time of the loading of the plate and the beams is taken into account. The solution of the arising plate and beam problems, which are nonlinearly coupled, is achieved using the analog equation method. The adopted model, compared with those ignoring the in-plane forces and deformations, describes better the actual response of the plate–beams system and permits the evaluation of the shear forces at the interfaces, the knowledge of which is very important in the design of prefabricated ribbed plates. The resulting deflections are considerably smaller than those obtained by other models.     

Continuum Microviscoelasticity Model for Aging Basic Creep of Early-Age Concrete

We propose a micromechanics model for aging basic creep of early-age concrete. Therefore, we formulate viscoelastic boundary value problems on two representative volume elements, one related to cement paste (composed of cement, water, hydrates, and air), and one related to concrete (composed of cement paste and aggregates). Homogenization of the “nonaging” elastic and viscoelastic properties of the material’s contituents involves the transformation of the aforementioned viscoelastic boundary value problems to the Laplace-Carson (LC) domain. There, formally elastic, classical self-consistent and Mori-Tanaka solutions are employed, leading to pointwisely defined LC-transformed tensorial creep and relaxation functions. Subsequently, the latter are back-transformed, by means of the Gaver-Wynn-Rho algorithm, into the time domain. Temporal derivatives of corresponding homogenized creep and relaxation tensors, evaluated for the current maturation state of the material (in terms of current volume fractions of cement, water, air, hydrates, and aggregates; being dependent on the hydration degree, as well as on the water-cement and aggregate-cement ratios) and for the current time period since loading of the hydrating composite material, allow for micromechanical prediction of the aging basic creep properties of early-age concrete.     

Nonlinear Creep Damage Model for Concrete under Uniaxial Compression

An isotropic model for creep damage of concrete under uniaxial compression is proposed, where the combined effect of nonlinear viscous strain evolution and crack nucleation and propagation at high stress levels is considered. Strain splitting assumption is used for creep and damage contributions. Creep is modeled by a modified version of solidification theory. As usual in the modeling of damage of concrete, a damage index based on positive strains is introduced. As particular cases, the proposed model reduces to linear viscoelasticity for long time low stress levels whereas, for very high stresses, tertiary creep causing failure at a finite time can be described. The effect of strength variation with time is also included. The model is numerically implemented to perform time integration of nonlinear equations by means of a modified version of exponential algorithm. The model is validated through comparison with experimental results. Some numerical examples are also presented, where the roles of concrete ageing and strength variation with time are investigated.     

Neural Network for Creep and Shrinkage Deflections in Reinforced Concrete Frames

A recently developed accurate procedure termed as the consistent procedure (CP) for evaluation of creep and shrinkage behavior in reinforced concrete (RC) frames is elaborate and requires large computational effort. An approximate procedure (AP) that has been available and widely used is simple and requires much less computational effort but can be erroneous. The feasibility of using the neural network model to simulate the inelastic deflections of CP from the results of AP for a class of RC frames is investigated. This model would enable rapid estimation of inelastic deflections of CP and would be useful at the planning stage. For this purpose, a ratio η of inelastic deflections of CP, to corresponding deflections of AP, designated as inelastic deflection ratio is defined as the output parameter. The sensitivity of η with the probable structural parameters in the practical range of values is studied and governing input parameters identified. The training is carried out for a practical range of the governing structural parameters. Trained network is validated for a number of example buildings.     

Creep Deformation of Fiber Reinforced Plastics-Plated Reinforced Concrete Tensile Members

The problem of long-term creep deformation of reinforced concrete tensile elements strengthened by external fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) plates is studied. Formation of discrete cracks in concrete under tension is taken into account. A kinematic model is used, where relative slips between concrete, steel bars, and FRP plates are considered, governed by viscous interface shear stress–slip laws. Bazant’ solidification theory and exponential algorithm are used to obtain incremental constitutive equations for concrete as well as for steel-concrete and FRP-concrete interface laws. Moreover, cohesive normal stresses across transverse cracks in concrete are considered. The incremental differential system of equations is transformed into a nonlinear algebraic system by a finite difference discretization with respect to axial coordinate. Several numerical examples are presented, concerning both short-term and long-term loadings. It is shown that reinforcing by means of FRP plates or sheets has significant beneficial effects on the behavior of reinforced concrete elements under service loadings because (1) it increases concrete tension stiffening effect and (2) it strongly reduces crack width. The present study shows that these beneficial effects are preserved also in the case of long-term loadings.     

Effects of Temperature Variations on Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders

The monitoring of a precast, prestressed girder bridge during fabrication and service provided the opportunity to observe temperature variations and to evaluate the accuracy of calculated strains and cambers. The use of high curing temperatures during fabrication affects the level of prestress because the strand length is fixed during the heating, the coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and concrete differ, and the concrete temperature distribution may not be uniform. For the girders discussed here, these effects combined to reduce the calculated prestressing stress from the original design values at release by 3 to 7%, to reduce the initial camber by 26 to 40%, and to increase the bottom tension stress in service by 12 to 27%. The main effect of applying the standard service temperature profiles to the bridge was to increase the bottom stress by 60% of the allowable tension stress. These effects can be compensated for by increasing the amount of prestressing steel, but in highly stressed girders, such an increase leads to increased prestress losses (requiring yet more strands) and higher concrete strength requirements at release.     

Probabilistic Material Degradation under High Temperature, Fatigue, and Creep

This paper describes the development of methodology that provides for quantification of uncertainty in the lifetime material strength degradation of structural components of aerospace propulsion systems subjected to a number of diverse random effects. The methodology is embodied in the two computer programs PROMISS and PROMISC. These programs form a material‐resistance model used in an aerospace structural‐reliability program NESSUS. A probabilistic material‐degradation model, in the form of a postulated randomized multifactor interaction equation, is used to quantify lifetime material strength. Each multiplicative term in the model has the property that if the current value of an effect equals the ultimate value, then the lifetime strength will be zero. Also, if the current value of an effect equals the reference value, the term equals one and lifetime strength is not affected by that particular effect. Presently, the model includes three effects that typically reduce lifetime strength: high temperature, mechanical fatigue, and creep. The paper also includes the statistical analysis of experimental data for INCONEL 718 obtained from the open literature. This statistical analysis of data provided regression parameters for use as the empirical material constants of the model, thus calibrating the model specifically for INCONEL 718. Model calibration was carried out for three variables, namely, high temperature, mechanical fatigue, and creep. Finally, using the PROMISS computer program, a sensitivity study was performed with the calibrated random model illustrating the effect of each variable upon random lifetime strength.     

Effect of Severe Environmental Exposures on CFRP Wrapped Concrete Columns

Deterioration of concrete structures caused by corrosion of reinforcing steel, aging, and weathering is a major problem in harsh environments such as coastal areas and cold regions. In addition, a hot environment, such as in the Arabian Gulf, is recognized as one of the most severe and aggressive environments that affects concrete durability. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of strengthening plain concrete cylinders, subjected to extreme temperature variations, by wrapping with two layers of unidirectional carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets. Thirty-six plain concrete cylinders (150×300?mm) were tested. Nine specimens served as unstrengthened controls and the remaining cylinders were strengthened with two layers of CFRP sheets. Cylinders were subjected to high temperatures (45°C), to heating and cooling cycles (23 to 45°C), and to prolonged heat exposure (45°C). Some of the cylinders that were subjected to heating and cooling, were later subjected to freezing and thawing cycles, while others were submerged in fresh water or salt water. The specimens were loaded to failure under uniaxial compressive load and the axial and lateral deformations were monitored. High temperature exposure was not found to decrease the strength of the wrapped concrete cylinders.     

浅谈温度对混凝土裂缝的影响及预防措施

通过多年的现场观察并查阅有关混凝土内部应力方面的专著,对混凝土温度裂缝产生的原因、现场混凝土温度的控制和预防裂缝的措施等进行阐述。     

电磁搅拌对电渣重熔钢锭温度场的影响

建立了电磁搅拌条件下电渣重熔钢锭凝固过程数学模型。利用Visual Basic编程模拟分析了旋转电磁搅拌下15Mn钢的电渣重熔凝固过程,结果表明:未施加磁场时,模拟结果与实验结果较吻合;施加磁场时,电磁搅拌加强了钢液内部传热,熔池变平坦,有利于消除电渣锭宏观偏析和缩孔等缺陷,同时有利于晶核发展成等轴晶组织。     

Measurements of Thermal Gradients and their Effects on Segmental Concrete Bridge

This paper presents concrete temperature data through the depth of a segmental box girder bridge. These data were collected continuously over a 2? year time period. The maximum recorded positive and negative thermal differentials are reported and compared to current design recommendations. The relationships between measured temperatures and ambient climatic conditions as recorded by the National Weather Service were studied and findings are presented. Equations to predict positive temperature differentials are presented and the predictions are compared to measured values. Finally, the results of two one-day studies of the response of the bridge to positive thermal gradients are presented.     

Influence of Early Temperature Rise on Movements and Stress Development in Concrete Decks

The primary focus of this paper is to develop an understanding of temperature changes introduced by hydration heat release in the first few hours after casting in the thermal movements and stresses of the concrete deck and girders. Temperature and strain measurements from a simply supported, single-span, steel girder bridge with a composite concrete deck are presented. It is shown that setting occurs during the temperature rise and partial strain compatibility between steel girder and concrete deck is initiated at the end of the concrete temperature rise. Full strain compatibility between concrete deck and steel girder is achieved at the end of the cooling period following the initial temperature rise. The stresses in the steel girder associated with temperature changes are interpreted using an analytical model. It is shown that the concrete deck gains sufficient stiffness at the end of the temperature rise to restrain the movement of the top flange. Concrete deck movement in the period associated with cooling following the initial temperature rise is restrained, which could potentially produce tensile stress in concrete. The magnitude of tensile stress at the end of the cooling period depends upon the difference in the temperatures of the concrete deck and top flange and on the temperature gradient in the steel girder at the end of the heating period.     

Creep-Effect on Mechanical Behavior of Concrete Confined by FRP under Axial Compression

Despite many successes in concrete creep studies, its effect on the mechanical behavior of concrete members is far from a thorough case-specific understanding. For the members that have been subjected to a long-term load, the classical stress-strain models describing the short-term behavior of either confined or unconfined concrete are unsuitable. In order to investigate this creep-effect, an experiment on eight concrete cylindrical columns confined by fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) is carried out. Based on the theory of plasticity for concrete, a constitutive model that takes into account the effect of creep on mechanical behavior of concrete confined by FRP is presented. In the model, the creep law inspired in the microprestress-solidification theory is generalized to triaxial stress condition for the calculation of the creep of the concrete columns confined by FRP. The predictions of the model agree well with the experimental results. The present study indicates that the creep increases the elastic modulus, slightly decreases the compressive strength, and degrades the deformation capability of the concrete confined by FRP.     

Effect of Temperature on Air-Water Transfer of Hydrogen Sulfide

The extent of hydrogen sulfide transfer across the air-water interface plays a major role for odor and corrosion problems in sewer networks. One significant physical factor affecting the air-water transfer process is temperature. This study describes the temperature dependence of air-water transfer of hydrogen sulfide in terms of a temperature correction factor (temperature coefficient). The air-water transfer rate was found to increase with increasing temperature at a constant turbulence level. A mathematical expression for the transfer rate versus temperature was addressed following the Arrhenius equation. The temperature coefficient for air-water transfer of hydrogen sulfide was observed under acidic and neutral conditions (pH 4.5, 6.5, and 7.0), i.e., under conditions where only the molecular form of hydrogen sulfide was present (pH 4.5) and under conditions where both the molecular form and the ionized form existed (pH 6.5 and 7.0). The effect of temperature on air-water transfer of hydrogen sulfide decreased with increasing pH. The temperature coefficients found in this study were within the range reported in the literature for other substances transferring across the air-water interface such as oxygen, ozone, and krypton-85.     

Effects of Loading Rate and Duration on Axial Behavior of Concrete Confined by Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Sheets

In this study, 18 concrete cylinder specimens were tested either under uniaxial compression at different loading rates or exposed to sustained axial stresses after being jacketed externally with carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets. The specimens were cast using medium strength concrete. All the specimens had identical dimensions and level of confinement. Loading rate and applied sustained stress level were the main test parameters. Applied loading rate varied between 0.0002 and 0.04 strain/min. Four stress levels between 0.52 and 0.85fcc′ (0.90 and 1.46fco′) were used in short-term creep tests. Test results showed that the stress-strain behavior of CFRP confined concrete was influenced by the change in loading rate, and CFRP confinement provided considerable increase in the creep performance of concrete. The strength enhancement was more pronounced for specimens loaded at higher strain rates, while specimens loaded at slower strain rates exhibited better deformability. Results obtained from short-term monotonic loading tests were also compared with the results of two analytical approaches originally developed for plain concrete. None of the specimens failed during the short-term creep tests. However, the lifetime of the specimen, which was subjected to 0.85fcc′ (1.46fco′) sustained axial stress, was predicted as 20 days. Results of residual strength tests showed that specimens did not have any strength loss due to sustained loading.     

Effect of Reaction Temperature on CO2 Capture Using Potassium-Based Solid Sorbent in Bubbling Fluidized-Bed Reactor

We investigated the effects of carbonation and regeneration temperature on the CO2 capture characteristics using SorbKX35, a potassium-based solid sorbent in a bubbling fluidized-bed reactor. A dry sorbent, SorbKX35 consists of K2CO3 for absorption and supporters for mechanical strength. We also measured the physical properties of the sorbent, such as pore size, pore volume, and surface area after carbonation or regeneration, to confirm the extent of the reaction. With H2O vapor pretreatment, nearly complete CO2 removal was initially achieved and maintained for about 10?min within a temperature range of 333.15–363.15?K with 2?s gas residence time. At lower temperature, CO2 capture was more effective during 1?h of carbonation. From the results of temperature programmed desorption and gas adsorption method (BET), we found that the regeneration of carbonated SorbKX35 was not complete at 473.15?K. The results obtained in this study can be used as basic data for designing and operating a large-scale CO2 capture process with two fluidized-bed reactors.     

时效温度对14Co-11Ni-2Cr-3Mo超高强度钢组织与性能的影响

研究了25 kg感应炉熔炼的Co-Ni-Cr-Mo二次硬化超高强度钢(％:0．16C、11．0Ni、2．0Cr、3．0Mo、14．0Co)经460-580℃时效后的组织和力学性能。试验结果表明,该钢经860℃淬火+(-73℃)冷处理+480℃时效后,组织中存在大量弥散分布的针状M(Co,Mo)₂C碳化物,钢的屈服强度Rp_0.2达到最大值1 685 MPa,冲击功A_kv为20 J;在550℃过时效状态下,板条边界逆转变奥氏体量明显增加,A_kv增至32 J,同时Rp_0.2下降至1 320 MPa。     

Combined Effect of Loading and Cold Temperature on the Stiffness of Glass Fiber Composites

Because of the short construction season and cold winters in Alaska, the prestressed concrete decked bulb-tee bridge system is very popular. However, the concrete deck is an integral part of the bridge superstructure and cannot be easily replaced when it deteriorates. Obviously, there is merit in combining durable “premanufactured” fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite deck with stiffer prestressed concrete girders in cold regions. However, the effects of long-term exposure to extreme temperature variations and various moisture conditions typical of cold regions on the performance of FRP composite materials are not fully understood. This paper summarizes the combined effect of low-temperature and deformation strain levels on the longitudinal modulus of glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) samples. The modulus of elasticity of GFRP laminate coupons was tested at various temperatures down to ?31 °F (?35°C) by temporarily subjecting the samples to three strain levels of 1,000, 2,000, or 3,000 microstrains. Both biaxial and uniaxial samples subjected to a deformation of 1,000 microstrains showed an increase in stiffness when tested at increasingly colder temperatures, and no noticeable change in stiffness was seen when the samples were retested after being equilibrated to room temperature. However, samples subjected to a predetermined elevated strain level did show significant stiffness degradation after room temperature equilibration. The degree of degradation was noticeably larger for samples subjected to the low temperatures than for control samples that were subjected to the equivalent number of cycles at room temperature. It was also noted that the degradation due to load cycles or temperature coupled with load cycles was noticeably less for uniaxial samples than for biaxial samples.     

利用经验电子理论(EET)分析Al对Fe-Cr高温合金冲击韧性的影响

采用Thermal calc热力学软件,计算了新型含铝Fe-Cr合金(/%:1.60C、26.00Cr、5.50Al、0.50Ni、0.12Y)的相图,结合X射线衍射分析,确定了该合金的相组成。在此基础上,运用固体与分子经验电子理论(EET),分析了普通高铬铸铁和含铝Fe-Cr合金的价电子结构、共价键键能以及晶格电子数,从电子层面揭示含铝Fe-Cr合金冲击韧性下降的微观机理。结果表明,添加5.50%Al后,Fe-Cr合金中出现了含铝结构单元,这些单元中最强键共价电子对数从0.48640降低为0.450 31,次强键共价电子对数也从0.199 83降低到0.118 88,同时晶格电子数有所减少,从而导致其冲击韧性下降。含5.50%Al的Fe-Cr高温合金冲击韧性的EET预测结果与实测结果吻合良好。