Silicon carbide (NicalonTM) fibre-reinforced borosilicate glass composites: mechanical properties

The objective of this study was to assess the applicability of an extrinsic carbon coating to tailor the interface in a unidirectional NicalonTM–borosilicate glass composite for maximum strength. Three unidirectional NicalonTM fibre-reinforced borosilicate glass composites were fabricated with different interfaces by using (1) uncoated (2) 25 nm thick carbon-coated and (3) 140 nm thick carbon coated Nicalon fibres. The tensile behaviours of the three systems differed significantly. Damage developments during tensile loading were recorded by a replica technique. Fibre–matrix interfacial frictional stresses were measured. A shear lag model was used to quantitatively relate the interfacial properties, damage and elastic modulus. Tensile specimen design was varied to obtain desirable failure mode. Tensile strengths of NicalonTM fibres in all three types of composites were measured by the fracture mirror method. Weibull analysis of the fibre strength data was performed. Fibre strength data obtained from the fracture mirror method were compared with strength data obtained by single fibre tensile testing of as-received fibres and fibres extracted from the composites. The fibre strength data were used in various composite strength models to predict strengths. Nicalon–borosilicate glass composites with ultimate tensile strength values as high as 585 MPa were produced using extrinsic carbon coatings on the fibres. Fibre strength measurements indicated fibre strength degradation during processing. Fracture mirror analysis gave higher fibre strengths than extracted single fibre tensile testing for all three types of composites. The fibre bundle model gave reasonable composite ultimate tensile strength predictions using fracture mirror based fibre strength data. Characterization and analysis suggest that the full reinforcing potential of the fibres was not realized and the composite strength can be further increased by optimizing the fibre coating thickness and processing parameters. The use of microcrack density measurements, indentation–frictional stress measurements and shear lag modelling have been demonstrated for assessing whether the full reinforcing and toughening potential of the fibres has been realized. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

TOUGHNESS CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNTHETIC FIBRE-REINFORCED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES

The brittle nature of concrete is a reflection of its low toughness and the presence of defects. One effective way to enhance the toughness of concrete is by fibre reinforcement. Synthetic fibres, mostly polypropylene, have been widely used as a concrete additive at 1% or less volume fraction for toughness enhancement and shrinkage control. Pull-out of fibres bridging a concrete matrix crack absorbs a significant amount of energy. This paper reviews some of the fracture mechanics approaches to the prediction of failure of fibre-reinforced concrete structures, methods used to rank the toughness of fibre-reinforced concrete, toughness optimization, and the properties of concrete reinforced with selected synthetic and recycled fibres.     

Tensile strength of discontinuous fibre-reinforced composites

A stochastic Monte-Carlo approach, based on Eyring's chemical activation rate theory, is used to study the factors controlling the tensile strength of discontinuous fibre-reinforced composites. The model explicitly takes into account the local distribution of stress near fibre ends. Both the fibre and the matrix are allowed to break during fracture of the composite. The stress-strain curves and the modes of failure of the composite are found to be strongly dependent on the volume fraction and aspect ratio of the fibres. The importance of adhesion at the fibre/matrix interface is also studied. The results are compared with available experimental data.     

On the mechanical properties,deformation and fracture of a natural fibre/recycled polymer composite

A composite laminate based on natural flax fibre and recycled high density polyethylene was manufactured by a hand lay-up and compression moulding technique. The mechanical properties of the composite were assessed under tensile and impact loading. Changes in the stress–strain characteristics, of yield stress, tensile strength, and tensile (Young's) modulus, of ductility and toughness, all as a function of fibre content were determined experimentally. A significant enhancement of toughness of the composite can be qualitatively explained in terms of the principal deformation and failure mechanisms identified by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. These mechanisms were dominated by delamination cracking, by crack bridging processes, and by extensive plastic flow of polymer-rich layers and matrix deformation around fibres. Improvements in strength and stiffness combined with high toughness can be achieved by varying the fibre volume fraction and controlling the bonding between layers of the composite.     

Study of fatigue life of glass fibre/zirconia hybrid composites using an ultrasonic technique

The use of hybrid composite materials with confidence in aerospace structures is possible only when suitable non-destructive testing techniques are developed. In this study, an ultrasonic technique has been used to evaluate the fatigue life of a glass fibre/zirconia hybrid composite to which zirconia particulate filler had been added to increase the absorbing capacity during fracture of the glass fibre-reinforced plastic. The results indicate that the fatigue life of the hybrid composite decreases with increasing ultrasonic attenuation. The failure mode of the hybrid composite was studied by scanning electron microscopy, which revealed that the maximum stress is concentrated around the fibres.     

Mechanical properties of high strength concrete reinforced with metallic and non-metallic fibres

This paper focuses on the experimental investigation carried out on high strength concrete reinforced with hybrid fibres (combination of hooked steel and a non-metallic fibre) up to a volume fraction of 0.5%. The mechanical properties, namely, compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength and flexural toughness were studied for concrete prepared using different hybrid fibre combinations – steel–polypropylene, steel–polyester and steel–glass. The flexural properties were studied using four point bending tests on beam specimens as per Japanese Concrete Institute (JCI) recommendations. Fibre addition was seen to enhance the pre-peak as well as post-peak region of the load–deflection curve, causing an increase in flexural strength and toughness, respectively. Addition of steel fibres generally contributed towards the energy absorbing mechanism (bridging action) whereas, the non-metallic fibres resulted in delaying the formation of micro-cracks. Compared to other hybrid fibre reinforced concretes, the flexural toughness of steel–polypropylene hybrid fibre concretes was comparable to steel fibre concrete. Increased fibre availability in the hybrid fibre systems (due to the lower densities of non-metallic fibres), in addition to the ability of non-metallic fibres to bridge smaller micro cracks, are suggested as the reasons for the enhancement in mechanical properties.     

Mikromechanisches stochastisches Versagensmodell uniaxial faserverstärkter Verbundwerkstoffe

Micromechanical stochastic failure model of uniaxial fibre-reinforced composites A theoretical model of stress transfer between a transversal isotropic fibre and the surrounding matrix material in a uniaxially fibre-reinforced composite near a single matrix flaw is discussed including friction controlled fibre-matrix interface debonding. The rise of fracture toughness due to frictional fibre sliding is studied accounting for Weibull strength distribution of fibres. The total dissipative work may be used as figure of merit regarding the damage tolerance. A critical evaluation is presented concerning some previous models of local failure probabilities. Numerical results are demonstrated. Conditions for an optimized C/Al-composite are presented.     

The fibre pull-out energy of misaligned short fibre composites

A theoretical study on the fibre pull-out energy has been carried out for short fibre-reinforced composites. Two probability density functions were introduced for modelling the fibre-length distribution and the fibre-orientation distribution. By taking into account the effect of snubbing friction between fibres and matrix at the fibre exit point during fibre pull-out, and that of the fracture stress of fibres obliquely crossing the fracture plane (i.e. the inclined strength of fibres), the fibre pull-out energy of composites has been derived as a function of fibre-length distribution and fibre-orientation distribution, as well as interfacial properties. The previously existing fibre pull-out energy theories can be deduced from the present model. The effects of fibre-length distribution, fibre-orientation distribution, interfacial properties, snubbing-friction coefficient and parameter A for determining the inclined strength of fibres on the fibre pull-out energy, have been studied in detail. The present study provides the necessary information as to which fibre-length distribution, fibre-orientation distribution and interfacial property are required to achieve a desired fibre pull-out energy and hence a desired composite toughness. High-strength fibres, a large fibre-volume fraction and a large fibre diameter for a comparatively large mean fibre length, are shown to be favourable for achieving a high fibre pull-out energy. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Damage tolerance assessment by bend and shear tests of two multilayer composites: Glass fibre reinforced metal laminate and aluminium roll-bonded laminate

The damage tolerance of an aluminium roll-bonded laminate (ALH19) and a glass fibre reinforced laminate (GLARE) (both based on Al 2024-T3) has been studied. The composite laminates have been tested under 3-point bend and shear tests on the interfaces to analyze their fracture behaviour. During the bend tests different fracture mechanisms were activated for both laminates, which depend on the constituent materials and their interfaces. The high intrinsic toughness of the pure Al 1050 layers present in the aluminium roll-bonded laminate (ALH19), together with extrinsic toughening mechanisms such as crack bridging and interface delamination were responsible for the enhanced toughness of this composite laminate. On the other hand, crack deflection by debonding between the glass fibres and the plastic resin in GLARE was the main extrinsic toughening mechanism present in this composite laminate.     

RTM Hemp Fibre-Reinforced Polyester Composites

Hemp fibre-reinforced polyester composites were prepared using a Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) technique and the flexural and impact behaviour investigated. Flexural stress at break and flexural modulus showed an increasing trend with fibre content. Impact strength was found to decrease at low fibre content, then gradually increase with further addition of fibres.A strong interfacial adhesion between hemp and polyester was obtained using chemically modified hemp. This modification consisted in introducing reactive vinylic groups at the surface of the fibres, via esterification of hemp hydroxyl groups, using methacrylic anhydride. Increased bonding between fibres and matrix did not affect the flexural stress at break of the composite but was detrimental to toughness. This behaviour was ascribed to a change in the mode of failure, from fibre pull-out to fibre fracture, resulting in a marked reduction in the energy involved in the failure of the composite, leading to a more brittle material.     

Discrete element modelling of unidirectional fibre-reinforced polymers under transverse tension

The mechanical behaviour of unidirectional fibre-reinforced polymer composites subjected to transverse tension was studied using a two dimensional discrete element method. The Representative Volume Element (RVE) of the composite was idealised as a polymer matrix reinforced with randomly distributed parallel fibres. The matrix and fibres were constructed using disc particles bonded together using parallel bonds, while the fibre/matrix interfaces were represented by a displacement-softening model. The prevailing damage mechanisms observed from the model were interfacial debonding and matrix plastic deformation. Numerical simulations have shown that the magnitude of stress is significantly higher at the interfaces, especially in the areas with high fibre densities. Interface fracture energy, stiffness and strength all played important roles in the overall mechanical performance of the composite. It was also observed that tension cracks normally began with interfacial debonding. The merge of the interfacial and matrix micro-cracks resulted in the final catastrophic fracture.     

The impact strength of fibre composites

Two models have been developed which predict the crack initiation energy, notched impact strength and unnotched impact strength of fibre composites. One is applicable to composites containing short fibres and the other to composites containing long fibres. Data obtained with randomly oriented short fibre composites were consistent with the one model. The other model has been verified using composites containing uniaxially oriented long fibres and long fibres oriented randomly in a plane. The success of the model demonstrates that the high notched impact strength with long fibres is due to the redistribution of stress away from the stress concentrating notch, the extra stress that can be held by the fibre relative to the matrix and the work required to pull fibres out of the matrix during crack propagation. The parameters which have been shown to control the fracture energy are composite modulus, fibre length, fibre volume fraction, effective fibre diameter, fibre tensile strength and the coefficient of friction during fibre pull-out from the matrix. The matrix toughness on the other hand usually has no effect at all for composites containing fibres randomly oriented in two dimensions and only a minor effect in exceptional cases. The shear strength of the fibre-matrix bond has only an indirect effect in that it controls the number of fibres which pull out rather than fracture.     

BEHAVIOUR OF FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETES WITH REFERENCE TO FRACTURE RESISTANCE

This paper examines the effect of beam size, fibre volume fraction and various fibres on the flexural behaviour of concretes, and their fracture resistance. The ratio of flexural strength to tensile strength is used as a measure of brittleness; a low value indicating a more brittle material. Two flexural toughness indices are used which provide a basis for analysing load–deflection curves. The relation between these structural indices and the material fracture resistance is assessed by adopting parameters which involve flexural and tensile strengths alone and fibre length to reflect fracture resistance.     

Strengthening in and fracture behaviour of CNT and carbon-fibre-reinforced epoxy–matrix hybrid composite

Advanced materials such as continuous fibre-reinforced polymer matrix composites offer significant enhancements in strength and fracture resistance properties as compared with their bulk, monolithic counterparts. In the present work, mode-I (tensile) fracture behaviour of the neat epoxy (without nano- or hybrid reinforcements), nanocomposite (with amino-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) reinforcement to neat epoxy) and hybrid composite (with amino MWCNT and carbon fibre reinforcements to neat epoxy) along with their flexural strength and interlaminar shear strength has been reported and discussed. Limited topological studies have also been conducted to understand the nature of material fracture and its dependence on the notch orientation. The results thus obtained are analysed and discussed in detail to elucidate: (i) alignment of fibre and its influence on the anisotropy in strength and fracture resistance, (ii) dependence of notch root radii on the apparent fracture toughness and concurrence to strain-controlled fracture and (iii) finally, the nature of J–R curves. The results thus obtained have revealed that the resistance to fracture is significantly increased with the addition of amino-functionalized MWCNTs and carbon fibres. In the hybrid composite, fracture resistance is greater in the longitudinal orientation of fibres than in the transverse orientation and it exhibits a significantly higher strength–fracture toughness combination.     

Mathematical model for tensile behaviour of hybrid continuous fibre cement composites

A mathematical model has been developed for the tensile behaviour of cement composites reinforced with two types of continuous and unidirectional aligned fibres. The model is based on the theory for single fibre composites proposed by Aveston, Cooper and Kelly. Theoretical curves have been obtained for the tensile properties of the polypropylene/glass fibre-reinforced cement composites by means of substituting parameters into the developed equations, and these curves were compared with experimental results for a limited range of fibre combinations. It is shown that to attain optimum hybrid effects for toughness and the first maximum point of the stress-strain curve, the correct fibre volume combinations should be included.     

Deterministic method for predicting the strength distribution of a fibre bundle

Owing to the non-strain hardening plastic behaviour of the aluminium matrix and the weak fibre/matrix interface, it has been shown that the strength of a carbon fibre-reinforced aluminium matrix composite made by diffusion bonding of prepreg layers can be derived from the corresponding fibre bundle strength. Application of Coleman's model to predict bundle strength leads to the conclusion that the composite must break when 15% of the fibres are broken. This greatly overestimates the experimental composite strength. Overestimations made by using the Coleman model are due to some implicit assumptions which are not valid in the case under consideration and which may consequently not describe our material. A new approach is proposed for the calculation of the strength distribution of a fibre bundle, based on the same fracture mechanism (fibres fracture progressively until the catastrophic fracture) but without restrictive assumptions. The real interpolated experimental fibre strength distribution (and not the Weibull distribution) is taken into account to predict bundle strength. The proposed method clearly shows the limit of strength prediction, in term of bundle size (number of fibres and gauge length). The risk of making predictions following the Weibull distribution out of the range of the observations (through single-fibre tensile tests) is demonstrated.     

Fracture behaviour of 2D-weaved, silica–silica continuous fibre-reinforced, ceramic–matrix composites (CFCCs)

Significantly improved fracture resistance (in terms of fracture toughness and fracture energy) can be imparted to monolithic ceramics by adopting composite design methodology based on fibre reinforcement technology. The present paper describes the fracture behaviour of one such fibre-reinforced material, namely the silica–silica based continuous fibre-reinforced, ceramic–matrix composite (CFCC) in two orthogonal notch orientations of crack divider and crack arrester orientations. Different fracture resistance parameters have been evaluated to provide a quantitative treatment of the observed fracture behaviour. From this study, it has been concluded that the overall fracture resistance of the CFCC is best reflected by total fracture energy release rate (J_c), which parameter encompasses most of the fracture events/processes. The J_c values of the composite are found to be more than an order of magnitude higher than the energy values corresponding to the plane strain fracture toughness (J_KQ, derived from K_Ic, the plane strain fracture toughness) and >200% higher than elastic–plastic fracture toughness (J_Ic). Apart from this, the composite is found to exhibit high degree of anisotropy in the fracture resistance and also, a significant variation in the relative degree of shear component with crack extension.     

Fracture and fatigue of discontinuously reinforced copper/tungsten composites

The strength, toughness and resistance to cyclic crack propagation of composites consisting of copper reinforced with short tungsten wires of various lengths have been studied and the results compared with the behaviour of continuously reinforced composites manufactured by the same method, i.e. by vacuum hot-pressing. It has been found that whereas the resistance to fatigue crack growth of continuously reinforced composites is very similar to that of continuous Al/stainless steel composites reported elsewhere, the addition of short fibres completely changes the mode of fracture, and no direct comparisons are possible. In effect, short fibres inhibit single crack growth by causing plastic flow to be distributed rather than localized, and although these composites are much less strong than continuous fibre composites, they nevertheless have much greater fatigue resistance. The fracture toughness of the composites is thought to be derived simply from the separate contributions of matrix and fibre plastic flow and, in composites containing fibres near to the critical length, from the very substantial work of fibre pull-out.     

Analysis of the tensile behaviour of viscoelastically prestressed polymeric matrix composites

A novel composite material is reported, in which tension, applied to polymeric fibres, is released prior to moulding them into a matrix. Following matrix solidification, compressive stresses imparted by the viscoelastically strained fibres impede crack propagation. Previous Charpy impact studies had demonstrated that these viscoelastically prestressed composites could absorb typically 25–30% more energy than control (unstressed) counterparts and the current study focuses on their tensile behaviour as a function of fibre volume fraction, V_f. Tensile testing was performed on continuous unidirectional nylon 6,6 fibre–epoxy resin samples. Compared with control counterparts, the results showed that viscoelastic prestressing improved tensile properties, the effects being V_f-dependent. Increases in tensile strength, modulus and energy absorbed (to 0.25 strain) exceeded 15%, 30% and 40%, respectively, at an optimum V_f, this being 35–40%. Strain-to-failure was reduced by 10–20%, thereby lowering any improvement in tensile toughness (energy absorbed to fracture) to <10%. Mechanical properties of the fibres themselves were not significantly influenced by the treatment used for generating composite prestress, and we propose that the observed improvements to tensile properties may be attributed to: (i) direct contribution from compressive stress, (ii) attenuation of the dynamic overstress effect on fibre fracture and (iii) improved mechanical integrity through a more collective response from fibres to tensile loads.     

Probabilistic aspects of strength of unidirectional fibre-reinforced composites with matrix failure

In the previous paper [1], the stress distribution and the expected number of successive fibre breakages around broken fibres were calculated. It showed the following results. The fracture process that the crack originates from one isolated broken fibre and propagates due to the stress redistribution following the fibre breakage is unlikely to occur in the real unidirectional fibre-reinforced composite material. The matrix-failure is considered to play an important role in the fracture process of real composite materials. In the present paper, the stress (or strain) distribution and the expected number of successive fibre breakages around broken fibres are calculated when the matrix-damaged regions exist. The stress (or strain) distribution is obtained based on the three-dimensional hexagonalarray shear-lag model. Uniform shear force is assumed to occur in the matrix-damaged region. The expected number of the successive fibre breakages is calculated on the assumption that the flaws in the fibre follow a Poisson process.