The effects of smoking outside workplaces on non-regular smokers

The introduction of workplace smoking bans has resulted in smokers smoking outside their workplaces (exiled smoking). Social identity theory postulates that this may cause antagonism between smokers and non-smokers, or where non-smokers were friends with smokers, pressure on non-smokers to smoke. This study examines perceptions and beliefs about exiled smoking in 166 non-smoking workers. They saw smokers as having a work benefit not available to them, but otherwise they were generally not drawn to the activity. Half had joined smokers outside for breaks, but of these only one-third had ever smoked. Those would smoked reported that they did not have a regular pattern of joining the same group of smokers. Although it may provide a conduit for susceptible non-smokers to take up smoking, exiled smoking does not appear to influence those who are not otherwise vulnerable.     

Effect of dietary protein and environmental temperature on growth performance and water consumption of male broiler chickens

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether smokers outside buildings with work-place smoking bans smoke "harder" than those smoking in social settings. An unobtrusive random observational study of smokers followed by structured interview was used, with 143 smokers taking smoking breaks outside their office buildings and 113 smokers in social settings. The main outcome measurements were number of puffs per cigarette and cigarette smoking duration. The mean number of puffs per cigarette for the office building group was 18.7% greater than that for the social settings group (10.7 +/- 3.2 vs. 8.7 +/- 2.7, t = 5.58, df = 253, p < 0.001); 74.8% of smokers outside offices took more than the mean number of puffs for the group compared to 42.5% of smokers in social settings (chi 2 df 1 = 26.31, p < 0.0001). Mean cigarette smoking duration was 30.4% shorter for the work-place group than the social settings group (3.9 +/- 1.2 minutes vs. 5.6 +/- 2.6 minutes). Of smokers outside offices, 55.2% had a cigarette smoking duration between 3 and 4.59 minutes, while 53.1% of smokers in social settings took > or = 5 minutes to smoke the observed cigarette (chi 2 df 2 = 31.55, p < 0.0001). Smokers who scored at the 75th percentile on the Fagerstrom Tolerance Scale took a mean 9.5 +/- 2.6 puffs per cigarette compared to 9.3 +/- 2.7 puffs by those who scored in the 25th percentile on the scale (t = 0.34, df = 145, p = 0.73). Regardless of degree of nicotine dependency, smokers leaving work-stations to smoke outside buildings smoked their cigarettes nearly 19% "harder" than cigarettes smoked in social settings. The individual and public health benefits of reduced smoking frequency engendered by work-place smoking bans may be lessened by policies which allow smokers to take smoking breaks.     

Prevalence of workplace smoking bans in Victoria

Restrictions on smoking in the Victorian workplace have been measured since 1988. This paper investigates whether the trend of increasing prevalence of total bans found between 1988 and 1992 has continued. Estimates are based on workers' reports of the restrictions on smoking that apply at their workplaces. For indoor workers a total ban on smoking restrictions in the workplace has increased from 58% in 1992 to 66% in 1995. White collar workers continue to enjoy a higher rate of protection than blue collar workers. Factories, warehouses, hotels and restaurants are the worksites least likely to have restrictions. Bans result in considerable exiled smoking: half the smokers reported going out to smoke during working hours on their last work day.     

The effects of alcohol on cigarette craving in heavy smokers and tobacco chippers.

The authors examined the effects of alcohol consumption on cigarette craving in heavy smokers and tobacco chippers (n = 138) who were instructed not to smoke for 12 hr. Participants were exposed to both smoking cues (a lit cigarette) and control cues. Half received a moderate dose of alcohol, adjusted for gender, and half received a placebo. Results indicated that alcohol consumption produced an increase in urge-to-smoke ratings before smoking cue exposure. Moreover, during cue exposure, alcohol consumption produced a sharper increase in urge ratings than did the placebo. In addition, during smoking cue exposure, alcohol increased the likelihood of displaying facial expressions associated with positive affect. These findings suggest that alcohol consumption influences both the magnitude and the emotional valence of cigarette cravings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of platelet-derived growth factor-BB on healing of the rabbit medial collateral ligament. An in vivo study

Cigarette smoking poses significant risk to mother and infant during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Recruitment of pregnant smokers to intervention studies has often been reactive and has excluded certain subgroups of women, such as those who have recently quit smoking. In this study, we examined smoking patterns among a proactively recruited sample of women presenting to six urban community maternity clinics. The current report describes the patterns of smoking in this population of ethnoculturally diverse low-income urban pregnant women and examines differences across subgroups. The majority of the total sample in the current study reported that they had never smoked. Of the total, 30% reported having "ever" smoked and 16% were current smokers. Of the group of "ever" smokers, 18% quit greater than 12 months before pregnancy, 5% quit 0-12 months before pregnancy and 23% quit during this pregnancy. On the average, women who quit during pregnancy did so about 5 weeks after diagnosis. Of those women who continued to smoke during pregnancy, the average number of cigarettes smoked per day was 10 +/- 8. Differences were found in smoking patterns across the ethnocultural subgroups. Recruitment represents the first and one of the most important phases in intervening with pregnant women. Inclusion of both current smokers and recent self-quitters takes the fullest advantage of the window of opportunity to help women quit smoking and remain cigarette free for good.     

Olanzapine reduces urge to smoke and nicotine withdrawal symptoms in community smokers.

Olanzapine (OLAN), an atypical antipsychotic medication with mixed 5-HT2/DA antagonist properties, was predicted to dose-dependently decrease urge to smoke, withdrawal, and cigarette reinforcement in smokers without psychosis. A double-blind placebo-controlled within-subjects cross-over trial investigated the acute effects of OLAN (0, 2.5, and 5.0 mg; counterbalanced order) in 24 community smokers who underwent 10-hr smoking deprivation. Urge to smoke, tobacco withdrawal, and cigarette reinforcement were assessed with cue reactivity and behavioral choice procedures. OLAN (2.5 mg) reduced withdrawal symptoms before and during cue exposure and decreased urge associated with anticipated positive affect from smoking before and during cue exposure; 5.0 mg OLAN decreased withdrawal only when cues were included. OLAN did not affect preference for cigarette puffs versus money, smoke intake, or urge to smoke associated with negative affect relief. The results indicate a potentially beneficial effect of 2.5 mg OLAN on tobacco withdrawal and urge to smoke. Combined 5HT/DA antagonists should be considered for future development of pharmacotherapies for smoking cessation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Smoking behavior and smoking history of tobacco chippers.

Nicotine produces dependence in almost all cigarette smokers. 65 chippers (anomalous smokers who smoke regularly but at very low levels [1–5 cigarettes/day]) were compared with 72 matched regular smokers (20–40 cigarettes/day). Despite having smoked an average of 46,000 cigarettes in 19 yrs of smoking, chippers demonstrated little sign of nicotine dependence. They reported frequent casual abstinence from smoking without withdrawal symptoms, smoked their 1st cigarette of the day hours after waking, and scored low on a modified Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire, a measure of tobacco dependence. Although most chippers had never smoked heavily, a small subgroup of chippers reported previous extended periods of heavy smoking, which suggests that some people may be able to overcome dependence while continuing to smoke. These "converted chippers" could not be distinguished from "native chippers" on the basis of their current smoking behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Regular smokers, lifetime very light smokers, and reduced smokers: Comparison of psychosocial and smoking characteristics in women.

This study compared stable very light smokers ([VLS]; less than 6 cigarettes a day) with regular smokers ([RS]; greater than 14 cigarettes a day) in a cohort of women followed up for 1 yr. The VLS showed evidence of inhaling the cigarette smoke. They were not novice smokers, nor were they under particular pressure to limit their smoking. Among the 61 VLS, 34 had at one time smoked more than 10 cigarettes per day. These "reduced smokers" were broadly similar to the lifetime VLS, who differed from RS in several important respects. In a multiple logistic regression, education and smoking patterns in relatives were independently associated with very light versus regular smoking. Familial factors and personal resources may protect against dependence among those who use tobacco. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in employee smoking behavior after implementation of restrictive smoking policies

How do restrictive smoking policies affect the smoking behavior of employees? At two federal hospitals, 2,700 employees completed written surveys after implementation of restrictive smoking policies. At one hospital, smokers reported less smoking at work (down 2.0 cigarettes a day at 6 months, 1.7 at 12) without compensatory smoking. At the other, no significant changes in smoking behavior were reported. However, at both hospitals, some baseline smokers quit smoking. At 6 months, 9% had quit at one hospital and 8% at the other. Analyses were done using these two studies and 17 published studies. In 11 of 11 studies, consumption at work decreased, and in 12 of 14, total daily consumption decreased. Regression analysis indicated that the number of smokers who quit smoking after policy implementation increases over time at rates exceeding those normally expected in the population. Smoking policies appear to effect a reduction in total cigarette consumption and an increase in the number of smokers who quit.     

Impact of expenditures for veterinary services and medical supplies on dairy farm productivity and profitability

OBJECTIVES: This study was undertaken to explore smoking patterns and attitudes that influence smoking cessation and relapse among African Americans. METHODS: Baseline data from eight Community Intervention Trial for Smoking Cessation (COMMIT) sites were analyzed. RESULTS: Compared with Whites, African Americans who smoke less than 25 cigarettes per day were 1.6 times more likely to smoke within 10 minutes of awakening (a behavioral indicator of nicotine dependence), adjusting for education, age, and gender (OR = 1.2 for heavier smokers). African Americans reported a stronger desire to quit smoking and reported serious quit attempts in the past year. African Americans favored tobacco restrictions (they were 1.8 times more likely than Whites to view smoking as a serious community problem, 1.7 times more likely to favor restrictions on cigarette vending machines, and 2.1 times more likely to prohibit smoking in their car). African Americans were lighter/moderate, menthol smokers. CONCLUSIONS: African Americans find smoking socially unacceptable and are strongly motivated to quit, but their "wake-up" smoking may indicate high nicotine dependence, making abstinence difficult even for lighter smokers.     

Smoking and nicotine addiction: a pediatric epidemic with sequelae in adulthood

Pediatric addiction to nicotine from cigarette smoking is a major public health problem, extracting a tremendous societal toll in terms of human suffering, a loss of future productivity, and the consumption of scarce health care resources. Teenagers smoke 1.1 billion packs of cigarettes yearly and will account for more than $200 billion in future health care costs. Recent behavioral studies confirm nicotine's ability to induce in adolescents both the tolerance and abstinence phenomena typical of other addicting substances. A range of adverse health effects, first detectable in adolescent cigarette smokers, extend into adulthood. Through the effects of environmental smoke or smoking during pregnancy, adolescent smokers affect not only their own health, but that of friends, family members, and even their own fetuses and children. Additional research into effective prevention and smoking cessation programs is urgently needed to forestall the ravaging of yet another generation by this preventable and deadly habit.     

Reactions of adult and teenaged smokers to the Massachusetts tobacco tax

OBJECTIVES: This study assessed smokers' reactions to a 25 cents cigarette tax imposed in Massachusetts. METHODS: A statewide telephone survey of 1783 adult smokers and 216 teenaged smokers was conducted. RESULTS: Among adult smokers, 3.5% reported that they had stopped smoking, owing in part to the price increase; 35% had considered quitting and 19% had attempted to cut the cost of smoking by switching to cheaper brands or cutting down. Among teenagers, 21% had considered quitting and 26% had cut costs. Low-income smokers were more responsive to the price increase than more affluent smokers. CONCLUSIONS: A modest and temporary price increase promoted quitting among adult smokers and reduced cigarette consumption among low-income teenagers.     

Daily patterns of conjoint smoking and drinking in college student smokers.

Epidemiological data indicate a robust association between smoking and alcohol use. However, a critical question that is less resolved is the extent to which the smoking event takes place during the time of alcohol consumption. The present study used data from an 8-week prospective web-based study of college student smokers to examine daily associations between smoking and alcohol use, using measures of both likelihood and level of use. Findings indicated that consumption of alcohol and smoking covaried on a daily basis per person. In addition, consistent with the idea of smoking as a social activity for college students, light smokers were more likely than heavier smokers to smoke while drinking and to smoke more cigarettes while drinking. Smoking behavior among light smokers may be influenced by external social contextual cues, in contrast to heavier smokers who may be more affected by internal cues. Implications of findings for prevention work suggest the importance of targeting social situations in which smoking and drinking co-occur. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fear of contagion: a response to stress?

Alterations of neutrophil functions by tobacco products may play a central role in the pathogenesis of periodontal diseases and several smoking-related systemic diseases. In the present study, we examined the in vitro effects of cigarette smoke on neutrophils at times and concentrations that may be encountered during smoke exposure. We measured the level of smoke exposure in the in vitro system by measuring the levels of nicotine and comparing these to levels in the oral cavity in smokers before and after smoking. We examined both the unstimulated and stimulated release of 2 oxidative burst products: superoxide (O-2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Salivary washings were collected from 7 smokers (> 1 pack/day) before smoking a cigarette. Immediately after they smoked a cigarette, a second set of washings was collected. In vitro exposure to smoke involved incubating aliquots of neutrophils in phosphate-buffered saline for 1 to 5 minutes. Nicotine and cotinine levels were quantitated using gas chromatography, with detection by electron impact mass spectrometry. Peripheral neutrophils were isolated from medically healthy non-smoking volunteers via a double-density gradient technique and incubated in vitro with whole cigarette smoke for 0 to 5 minutes. Phorbol myristate acetate (PMA; 10(-7) M) was used to stimulate half of the cell aliquots. Superoxide generation was assessed through the superoxide dismutase (SOD) inhibitable reduction of ferricytochrome c. H2O2 production was assessed through the H2O2-dependent breakdown of dichlorofluorescin diacetate to its fluorophore and measured by flow cytometry. There was a marked elevation in salivary nicotine concentration from before smoking (mean: 80.8 ng) to after smoking (mean 1,685 ng/mL). In the in vitro smoke box system, there was a time-related elevation in nicotine from 1 to 5 minutes (50-->136 ng/mL). In PMA-stimulated cells exposed to smoke, there was a time-related inhibition of both superoxide and H2O2 production. However, in unstimulated cells exposed to smoke, there was a time-related increase in the release of superoxide and H2O2. A novel finding in unstimulated cells exposed to smoke was that there appeared to be 2 distinct populations of cells--one of "high" H2O2 producers and one of "low" H2O2 producers. The proportion of high H2O2 producers increased relative to smoke exposure. The relative production of H2O2 in the unstimulated high producers was comparable to PMA-stimulated cells at 5 minutes. This release of superoxide and H2O2 in unstimulated cells exposed to smoke may alter the pathogenic processes both in periodontal diseases and other systemic diseases.     

Work-site smoking policies: their population impact in Washington State

This article presents data from a population-based, random-digit dialing telephone survey of 1228 employed adults in Washington State, conducted 1989 through 1990. Eighty-one percent of men and 91% of women reported work-site smoking restrictions. Employees in work sites with no-smoking policies were less likely to be current smokers; men in work sites with policies restricting smoking smoked fewer cigarettes on both workdays and nonworkdays. Forty-eight percent of male and 53% of female smokers reported reduced smoking as a result of work-site policy. Work-site smoking policies, intended to protect against smoke exposure, may also reduce employee smoking.     

Paced smoking in the laboratory and in the natural smoking setting: differential situation-specific effects in light and heavy smokers

The present study examined the situation-specific effects of smoking using a paced regimen of smoking to control the smoke intake. The subjects were first required to sham smoke and then actually smoke one of their cigarettes in two different test contexts: 1) in the laboratory where they had never previously smoked and 2) at home, alone in a quiet room where they regularly smoke. Light (< 10 cigarettes/day) and heavy smokers (> 15 cigarettes/day) were studied to test for a possible effect of the paced regimen itself. In the light smokers, smoking produced a larger increase in heart rate (HR) in the laboratory than in the natural smoking environment; however, in the heavy smokers the smoking had a larger effect in the normal smoking environment than in the laboratory. There were no significant group or test situation differences for baseline HR, skin conductance and finger temperature. The groups also did not differ in the intensity of drawing on the cigarette or inhaling, as indicated by a puff sensor and a respiratory belt, respectively. It was concluded that differences between the effects of a cigarette in a laboratory setting and in a natural smoking environment may reflect pharmacodynamic effects of smoking that are modified by the subjects' prior experience with smoking. The data are discussed with regard to conditioned tolerance to the effect of smoking.     

IgE antibody response of smokers, nonsmokers, and "smoke-sensitive" persons to tobacco leaf and smoke antigens

Serum samples from cigarette smokers, nonsmokers, and persons reporting "smoke sensitivity" were tested for IgE antibodies to tobacco leaf and smoke extracts by the radioallergosorbent test. Results indicated that none of the serum samples tested contained detectable IgE antibodies to smoke extracts. Occasionally, serum specimens from smokers or nonsmokers demonstrated reactivity to leaf antigen. The most significant reaction to leaf antigens was detected in serum from one of the 7 smoke-sensitive subjects tested. These results demonstrate that smoking, nonsmoking, and clinical "smoke sensitivity" are not correlated with the presence of IgE antibodies to tobacco leaf or smoke antigen.     

Characterizing nicotine withdrawal in pregnant cigarette smokers.

Maternal smoking is a leading preventable cause of poor pregnancy outcomes and infant morbidity and mortality. Whereas pregnancy has been thought of as a "window of opportunity" when women are more motivated to change health behaviors such as smoking, only 20% of pregnant women quit smoking upon learning they are pregnant and remain abstinent at the end of the pregnancy. Greater understanding of possible obstacles to smoking during pregnancy, such as nicotine withdrawal, is needed. The symptoms of nicotine withdrawal have been well characterized in nonpregnant smokers, but there has been only 1 report conducted during pregnancy, and that was a retrospective study. The aim of the present study was to characterize nicotine withdrawal and craving in pregnant cigarette smokers. These data were collected as part of prospective clinical trials assessing the efficacy of voucher-based incentives to promote abstinence from cigarette smoking during pregnancy and postpartum. The authors examined results from the Minnesota Nicotine Withdrawal Scale (J. R. Hughes & D. K. Hatsukami, 1998) in 27 abstainers (reported no or very low levels of smoking, which was confirmed biochemically) and 21 smokers (smoked at >80% of their baseline smoking level) during the first 5 days of a cessation attempt. Abstainers reported more impatience, anger, and difficulty concentrating than did smokers. The results also suggest that pregnant smokers generally may have elevated baseline levels of withdrawal, which need to be considered in the design and analysis of future studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Blood nicotine and carboxyhemoglobin levels after rapid-smoking aversion therapy.

Studied blood nicotine and carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) levels after rapid smoking in 5 male and 10 female smokers. Male Ss were under 40 yrs of age and females were under 50. Blood nicotine averaged 48.1 ng/mg after rapid smoking compared to 32.4 ng/ml after normal smoking, and COHb levels averaged 12.1% and 8.9%, respectively. Both differences were significant. Normal smoking levels of 92 smokers in other studies averaged around 30 ng/ml nicotine and 8.2–8.5% COHb. There was no evidence that the degree of nicotine and carbon monoxide intoxication produced during raid smoking had any relation to the reduction in the desire to smoke immediately after the session or the decrese in cigarette consumption on the following day. The potential risks of rapid smoking are discussed. It is suggested that these risks might be reduced by using a beta-adrenergic blocker and that the procedure could be made completely safe, possibly without loss of treatment effect, if Ss were instructed not to inhale. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)