Increasing the drawing height of conical square cups using anti-lock braking system (ABS)

This paper deals with increasing the drawing height of metal conical square cups with anti-lock braking system (ABS). A novel technique enabling higher drawing height than that achieved in the conventional deep drawing process is introduced, and the principle of the process is explained in this paper. Results of experiments conducted using aluminum alloyed Al-1050 blanks of thickness of 1 mm to draw conical square cups are reported here. Measured drawing load, drawing height and thickness distributions were compared with those obtained from the conventional method. The experimental results showed that higher drawing height of the cup can be achieved by the use of ABS.     

One-step FEM-based evaluation of weld line movement and development of blank in sheet metal stamping with tailor-welded blanks

Currently, more and more tailor-welded blanks (TWBs) are used in the automobile industry. It is very important to locate the weld line and predict its movement during the forming process. The initial weld line can be predicted by one-step finite-element analysis according to the desired weld line in the final workpiece. Meanwhile, weld line movement during the deformation process can be evaluated in advance. In this paper, the procedures of finite-element analysis of one-step FEM with TWBs are established. The contact between tool and blank and the effect of restraining forces under the blankholder due to drawbead and blankholder pressure are considered as well. Forming limit diagram (FLD) is used to show not only the tendency of reduction in thickness and fracture but also of increase in thickness and wrinkle. Hydraulic controlled pads used to clamp the weld line during the deep drawing process are simplified as static external force to eliminate the movement of the weld line. In order to speed up and ensure the convergence of Newton-Raphson iterations, energy-based 3D mesh mapping algorithm is introduced to obtain the initial solution. The above-mentioned methods have been implemented in the authors’ in-house one-step FEM code InverStamp. A rectangular cup drawing case demonstrates that this approach can be easily implemented to evaluate weld line movement and develop initial blank in sheet metal stamping with tailor-welded blanks.     

Deep drawing with anti-lock braking system (ABS)

In this study, for improving the formability and LDR a new method deep drawing with anti-lock braking system (ABS) was developed. The system is based on the blank sliding from the flange into the die cavity continually, which is controlled by the blank holder gap (BHG) and, at the same time by ABS, which moves up and down vertically, conducting anti-lock braking to the blank with the interval of very short time. The experimental results for AI99.8 aluminium sheet showed that higher drawing height and LDR of the cup can be achieved by the use of ABS. It was found that the new system increased surface quality and decreased ear in the top corners of the cup.     

Experimental and mathematical analysis of simulation results for sheet metal parts in deep drawing

In this paper, deep drawing of conical and cylindrical cups without blank holder is investigated using a conical die design. These cups are produced by pushing circular blanks by pushing the flat head punch in a single stroke. ANSYS APDL 14.0 was then used to investigate the effects of die and punch geometry, half-cone angle, die and punch fillet radius, and drawing load. The thickness distribution of the cup was numerically investigated to determine the optimal process design, and mathematical analysis was adopted to determine the thickness distribution and longitudinal stress calculation. An experimental set-up was designed to validate the simulation results for conical and cylindrical shaped sheet-metal cups. Tensile tests were carried out to obtain the flow of the stress-strain curve for the simulation. The drawing characteristics of materials were investigated by performing Erichsen cupping and Vickers hardness tests. Experiments were conducted on blanks of aluminum alloys and stainless steel with initial thicknesses of 1.5 mm. A cylindrical cup of ss304 with LDR of up to 2.2 and conical cup of AA1100 with LDR of up to 2.7 were successfully achieved. Finite element simulation results showed good agreement with the mathematical and experimental results.     

Analytical method for prediction of weld line movement during stretch forming of tailor-welded blanks

Tailor-welded blanks (TWBs) consisted of metal sheets with different characteristics welded into a single flat blank prior to pressing in order to achieve the optimal material arrangement and weight reduction for cars, and to increase machine flexibility and process efficiency. The movement of weld line in TWBs is always a challenging issue during manufacturing process. In this research, a new analytical method for prediction of weld line movement in TWBs is developed. A comparison between the analytical results with those obtained from finite element simulation as well as the experimental data indicates good compatibility between the predictions of the developed method in the case of both weld line movement and dome height of TWBs. Furthermore, the developed analytical method can appropriately consider the effect of thickness ratio on both weld line movement and dome height. It was observed that weld line movement increases as thickness ratio enhances.     

Seam gap bridging of laser based processes for the welding of aluminium sheets for industrial applications

Laser welding has a large potential for the production of tailor welded blanks in the automotive industry, due to the low heat input and deep penetration. However, due to the small laser spot and melt pool, laser-based welding processes in general have a low tolerance for seam gaps. In this paper, five laser-based welding techniques are compared for their gap bridging capabilities: single-spot laser welding, twin-spot laser welding, single-spot laser welding with cold wire feeding, twin-spot laser welding with cold wire feeding and laser/GMA hybrid welding. Welding experiments were performed on 1.1- and 2.1-mm-thick AA5182 aluminium sheets. The resulting welds were evaluated using visual inspection, cross sectional analysis with optical microscopy, tensile tests and Erichsen Cupping tests. The results show that the use of a filler wire is indispensable to increase the gap tolerance. A proper alignment of this wire with the laser spot(s) is crucial. With the single spot laser welding with cold wire feeding, a gap up to 0.6 mm could be bridged as opposed to a maximum allowable gap width of 0.2 mm for single-spot laser welding without filler wire. For 2.1-mm-thick sheets, the laser/GMA hybrid welding process can bridge even gaps up to 1.0 mm. Most welds had a high tensile strength. However, during Erichsen Cupping tests, the deformation of the welds is significantly lower as compared to the base material.     

Study on process parameters and its analytic application for nonaxisymmetric rectangular cup of multistage deep drawing process using low carbon thin steel sheet

Multistage deep drawing process is widely used to obtain various nonaxisymmetric rectangular cups. This deep drawing scheme including drawing and ironing processes consists of several tool sets to carry out a continuous production within one progressive press. To achieve the successive production, design and fabrication of the necessary tools such as punch, die, and other auxiliary devices are critical, therefore, a series of process parameters play an important role in performing the process design. This study focuses on the tool design and modification for developing the rectangular cup with an aspect ratio of 5.7, using cold-rolled low carbon thin steel sheet with the initial thickness of 0.4 mm. Based on the design results for the process and the tools, finite element analysis for the multistage deep drawing process is performed with thickness control of the side wall in intermediate blanks as the first approach. From the results of the first approach, it is shown that the intermediate blanks could experience failures such as tearing, wrinkling, and earing by excessive thinning and thickening. To solve these failures, the modifications for the deep drawing punches are carried out, and the modified punches are applied to the same process. The simulation results for the multistage rectangular deep drawing process are compared with the thickness distributions before and after the punch shape modifications, and with the deformed shape in each intermediate blank, respectively. The results of finite element reanalysis using the modified punches show significant improvement compared with those by using the original designed punch shapes.     

基于预偏移的激光拼焊板焊缝优化补偿方法

激光拼焊板成形时,由于两侧母材性能不同会产生焊缝移动现象,造成实际焊缝与设计焊缝位置不符。利用增量有限元解算工具,针对激光拼焊板的拉深成形过程,提出一种基于预偏移的激光拼焊板焊缝补偿方法。建立激光拼焊板成形有限元分析网格模型,通过对比成形前后设计焊缝和实际焊缝之间的差异,推导拼焊板焊缝偏差评价模型。以毛坯焊缝节点的位移预偏移量作为设计变量,以成形后的焊缝位置与设计焊缝位置的偏差最小作为优化目标,建立优化设计的数学模型。利用坯料网格的变形实现焊缝的预偏移,自定义外部优化程序实现预偏移策略。通过有限元迭代求解,补偿拼焊板成形过程中的焊缝移动,使成形后的焊缝位置与设计焊缝位置保持一致,对所提方法的有效性进行实例验证。     

The influence of ultrasonic vibration-assisted micro-deep drawing process

Micro-deep drawing process combined with ultrasonic vibration were performed on three stainless steel 304 foils of different thicknesses to determine the influence of ultrasonic vibrations on micro-cup formability and the limit drawing ratio (LDR). An ultrasonic system that applies 20 kHz of oscillation at various amplitudes was developed, and a concentrator was used to transfer the oscillation from the transducer to the die. The LDRs of these foils were obtained with and without ultrasonic variations. The experimental results in this study showed that using ultrasonic vibration following the deep drawing processes increased the LDR from 1.67 to 1.83, from 1.75 to 1.92, and from 1.83 to 2 for thicknesses of 50, 75, and 100 μm, respectively. The oscillation amplitudes had a significant effect on different thicknesses. An amplitude of 8.6 μm could not be appropriately applied to foils because of the excessive oscillated force. The punch force also decreased as the oscillation amplitude increased because of reduced friction between the die and the blank. Based on these experimental results, this study showed that ultrasonic vibrations can be used to produce micro-cups that exhibit high application flexibility in miniaturization technology.     

Study of formability of tailor-welded blanks in plane-strain stretch forming

In sheet metal forming, failure in the regions of the blank which are subjected to plane-strain deformation is one of the most common modes of failure. Therefore, study of forming limits of tailor-welded blanks (TWBs) deformed under plane-strain stretching is important to avoid failure in stampings of these prewelded composite blanks. In the present work, formability of three different types of tailor-welded blanks (TWBs) has been studied by limiting dome height (LDH) tests in plane-strain deformation mode. In all the three TWB combinations, the effect of weld orientation, with respect to major principal strain on formability, has been studied. It has been found that in TWBs with difference in thickness and properties, the LDH is higher in transverse (weld line parallel to width) cases when compared to longitudinal (weld line parallel to length) cases. The weld properties play a major role in the deformation of longitudinal specimens. But the extent of difference in properties, thickness, and surface characteristics has a strong influence on the location of fracture in transverse specimens. Weld line movement occurs toward thicker/stronger side during stretch forming of TWBs. The maximum weld line movement occurs at the pole, and it is highest in TWBs with difference in thickness. The extent of weld line movement is higher in the transverse samples than in the longitudinal samples.     

基于结构光视觉的激光拼焊焊缝质量检测方法研究

焊缝质量自动检测是实现焊接自动化的关键技术。文中在分析结构光视觉检测原理的基础上,建立了基于结构光视觉的激光拼焊焊缝质量检测系统并对检测系统的图像处理方法进行了研究。对原始图像进行了开窗处理和中值滤波,并使用迭代阈值法获得了结构光光纹。提出了一种简化的模板获得了光纹的边界点并使用几何中心法提取了光纹中心线。使用平均斜率法识别出光纹中心线的特征点。分析了激光拼焊焊缝截面轮廓的特点并建立了截面轮廓几何参数计算方法。实验结果表明该检测系统可以完成焊缝截面轮廓相关参数的计算。     

Optimization of contact forces in tailor-welded blanks forming process

To attain the objective of minimizing the harmful movement of the weld joint in tailor-welded blanks (TWBs) forming, a novel optimization methodology based on dynamic explicit finite element simulation is presented to determine optimum contact forces. In this methodology, forming limit diagram (FLD) models developed for different types of TWBs are treated as a criterion of constraint in optimizations. Due to the highly nonlinear nature of the forming process, response surface methodology (RSM) is utilized to construct sequential response surfaces to approximately describe the objective the constraint functions and the optimum contact forces of TWBs stamping are obtained with some successive iterations. However, a large number of numerical simulation runs are needed for optimization with higher-order approximate models or many design variables. To improve the efficiency of optimization, the space mapping (SM) technique utilizing surrogate models is integrated with RSM. Two examples are used to validate this algorithm: one optimization for TWBs stamping with the same thickness but different materials, and the other optimization for TWBs stamping with the same material but different thicknesses. The results demonstrate that the method is efficient and effective in solving contact forces optimization problems.     

Deep drawing with internal air-pressing to increase the limit drawing ratio of aluminum sheet

The effects of internal air-pressing on deep drawability are investigated in this study to increase the deep drawability of aluminum sheet. The conventional deep drawing process is limited to a certain limit drawing ratio(LDR) beyong which failure will occur. The intention of this work is to examine the possibilities of relaxing the above limitation through the deep drawing with internal air-pressing, aiming towards a process with an increased drawing ratio. The idea which may lead to this goal is the use of special punch that can exert high pressure on the internal surface of deforming sheet during the deep drawing process. Over the ranges of conditions investigated for Al-1050, the local strain concentration at punch nose radius area was decreased by internal air-pressing of punch, and the deep drawing with internal air-pressing was proved to be very effective process for obtaining higher LDR.     

拼焊板覆盖件成形过程中的焊缝移动和成形性能

焊缝移动以及与此相关的成形性能下降是拼焊板覆盖件零件成形过程中需要解决的难题。推导了横向受拉情况下拼焊板焊缝移动量的计算公式;在分析汽车门内板零件特点的基础上,确定拼焊板材料和焊缝位置,提出“阶梯压边圈”和“阶梯压边圈 焊缝夹紧柱”两种控制焊缝移动的工艺方案;应用动力显式数值模拟软件,分析了阶梯压边圈和焊缝夹紧柱对焊缝移动量的影响;通过减少焊缝移动量,在成形极限图、应力分布、应变分布和厚度减薄率这四个方面改善拼焊板的成形性能。     

The effect of nanoparticulate loading on the fabrication and characterization of multi-doped Zn-Al2O3-Cr2O3 hybrid coatings on mild steel

In this paper, an improved approach is proposed to determine the optimal profiles of two controllable process parameters (hydraulic pressure and blank holder force), which improve the forming condition and/or make better use of forming limits in hydromechanical deep drawing (HMD) process. A method based on adaptive finite element analysis coupled with fuzzy control algorithm (aFEA-FCA) was developed using LS-DYNA to determine the optimal loading profiles and thus to maximize the limiting drawing ratio (LDR). Maximum thickness reduction, maximum wrinkle height in the flange region of the sheet metal blank, and position of the nodes in the unsupported portion of the sheet metal blank between punch and die were used as criteria in the fuzzy control algorithm. Different rule-based matrices were compared by considering the maximum thinning occurred in the sheet metal blank, and thus, the most accurate matrices were determined for the control algorithm. The optimal loading profiles could be determined in a single FEA, thus reducing the computation time. The proposed approach enables determining the optimal loading profiles and also could be applied to complex parts easily. In addition, effects of initial blank diameter and coefficient of friction between the sheet-blank holder and sheet-die on the optimal loading profiles were investigated. An attainable LDR of 2.75 for AA 5754-O sheet material in hydromechanical deep drawing process was proven experimentally using the optimal loading profiles determined by adaptive FEA.     

Laser micro-welding of aluminum alloys: experimental studies and numerical modeling

Experimental and numerical studies were conducted on the effects of the laser beam pulse shaping in the time domain on the quality of the welding seam in laser micro-welded AlMg3 with a thickness of 0.2 mm and 1 mm thick AlMg4.5 Mg foils, respectively. The pulse shaping was realized by a time sequence of three different rectangular pulses with different duration and power level. The first pulse was used to pre-heat the sample, welding occurred with the second pulse and the third pulse controlled the melt pool behavior. The power level and the duration of the single pulses were varied systematically and the resulting microstructure was analyzed by scanning electron microscope. The experiments were accompanied by numerical simulations based on a finite volume model which considers the transient heat flow, melt convection and the evolution of a gas capillary during the deep penetration welding process.     

差厚激光拼焊板的拉延切边回弹特性

采用数值模拟和试验的方法,对厚度组合为1.2 mm/0.8 mm的激光拼焊板进行拉延切边工艺分析,重点就压边力大小、摩擦因数、凹模圆角等参数对回弹的影响进行研究,测量各工艺参数下拼焊板拉延切边的凸凹模圆角处的回弹角、总的回弹角和侧壁曲率,还测量出拼焊板成形中的焊缝移动和应力分布情况和分析相互联系,并与拼焊板拉延弯曲回弹进行比较。分析认为,与拉延弯曲回弹相似,压边力、摩擦因数、凹模圆角等工艺参数对拼焊板拉延切边回弹有着明显的影响,而压边力是关键因素;拼焊板拉延切边回弹和拉弯回弹都与焊缝移动有密切的关系,控制焊缝移动将有利于回弹的降低;相比之下,拼焊板拉延切边回弹比拉弯回弹要小。     

Understanding the process parameter interactions in multiple-pass ultra-narrow-gap laser welding of thick-section stainless steels

In laser welding, typical welding penetration depths are in the order of 1–2 mm/kW laser power. The multipass laser welding technique, based on the narrow-gap approach, is an emerging welding technology that can be applied to thick-section welds by using relatively low laser power, but the process is more complicated since it is necessary to introduce filler wire to narrow-gap weld configurations. The aim of this work was to understand significant process parameters and their interactions in order to control the weld quality in ultra-narrow-gap (1.5 mm gap width) laser welding of AISI grade 316L stainless steel. A 1-kW IPG single-mode fiber laser was used for welding plates that were 5 to 20 mm in thickness using the multiple-pass narrow-gap approach. Design of experiments and statistical modelling techniques were employed to understand and optimise the processing parameters. The effects of laser power, wire feed rate, and welding speed on the weld homogeneity, integrity, bead shape, gap bridgability and surface oxidation were studied. The results were evaluated under different optimising constraints. The results show that the models developed in this work can effectively predict the responses within the factors domain.     

激光拼焊板成形过程数值模拟技术现状及趋势

由于焊缝性能与母材存在较大的差异以及焊缝自身形状的特点,激光拼焊板在成形过程中的数值模拟分析可以采用不同的建模方法。介绍了国内外对激光拼焊板数值模拟采用的不同建模方法,比较了不同焊缝模型对计算结果的影响,并利用ABAQUS／Explicit动力显示积分模块分别采用忽略焊缝以及考虑焊缝采用壳单元时的建模方法对U形件的弯曲成形过程进行了数值仿真,结果显示焊缝模型对模拟结果影响较大,采用忽略焊缝的建模方法得到的焊缝移动量较小。     

Experimental study on multi-stage deep drawing for rectangular cup with high aspect ratio

Multi-stage deep drawing process for rectangular cup using finite element method has been analyzed to understand the main process parameters, to modify the tool configurations for achieving sound intermediate blanks, and to obtain the rectangular deep-drawn cup in the prior study. As shown in the results of the numerical analysis, it has been ensured that the rectangular deep-drawn cup could be obtained. In this study, the tool fabrication and development considering the effects of the intake angle and the ironing operation are performed. The developed tool sets are applied to the multi-stage deep drawing process of this study, and a systematic experiment for the rectangular deep drawing process is carried out. From the first trial in the experiment, several failures are predicted. To solve these failures, the contact surface on the lower die is modified. As shown in the experimental results for the second trial by applying the modified lower die, it is investigated that the failures such as wrinkling and tearing phenomena are not observed, and the excessive deformation behavior due to thinning and thickening effects is decreased. Furthermore, the thickness distributions on the major axis and the minor axis of the intermediate blanks are investigated to be already satisfied by the target (ironing) thickness, respectively. By this systematic approach, it is confirmed that the experimental results show a good agreement with the designed and required configuration of the final product.