Simulation of crack growth during hydrostatic testing of pipeline steel in near-neutral pH environment

The objective of this investigation was to understand the role of crack dimension, hydrogen, room-temperature creep and loading procedure on crack growth during hydrostatic testing of pipeline steels in near-neutral pH aqueous soil environments. Crack growth was found during hydrotesting, but was not linearly related to the stress intensity factor at the crack tip. Crack growth is mainly driven through the internal-hydrogen-assisted-cracking mechanism, instead of the hydrogen-environmental-assisted-cracking mechanism. Excessive plastic deformation induced by room-temperature creep prior to hydrotesting reduces crack advance during hydrotesting. Lower loading rate generally induces larger crack growth by hydrostatic loading. More crack growth occurs during loading in high stress regime.     

Study on hydrogen absorption of pipeline steel under cathodic charging

The hydrogen electrochemical oxidation method was used to determine the total amount of hydrogen absorbed by pipeline steels under cathodic charging. The oxidation currents were obtained for the hydrogen pre-charged specimen maintained at a certain positive potential in dilute NaOH electrolyte. The area under the current curve demonstrated a relationship with the hydrogen concentration. Hydrogen concentrations in pre-charged X70 and 16Mn steels were estimated using this method. It is shown clearly that hydrogen concentration in specimens increase as the applied current density increased, but the sensitivities of different materials to hydrogen are different. The effect of solution pH and pre-charging time on absorbed hydrogen is also studied.     

恒位移加载条件下X70管线钢在近中性pH溶液中的裂纹扩展行为

研究了恒位移静加载条件下,X70管线钢的裂纹扩展行为。结果表明,在近中性pH溶液中,恒位移加载情况下,不论是在自腐蚀电位还是外加阴极电位条件下,随时间的延长,X70钢裂纹并未扩展,其应力腐蚀断裂韧度值KISCC接近于断裂韧度KIC。X70管线钢具有高的韧性,动载荷对于其应力腐蚀裂纹的扩展起重要作用。     

Micro-electrochemical characterization of corrosion of welded X70 pipeline steel in near-neutral pH solution

The local corrosion behavior of welded X70 pipeline steel in near-neutral pH solution was studied by micro-electrochemical measurements, including scanning vibrating electrode and local electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The microstructure of the welded steel was observed by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. It is demonstrated that the microstructure of weld metal consists of acicular ferrite and grain boundary ferrite, while that of heat-affected zone is a mixture of acicular ferrite, bainitic ferrite and a few martensite/austenite microconstituents. The microstructure of base steel is typically ferrite and pearlite. Electrochemical corrosion mechanism of welded X70 steel does not experience change upon hydrogen-charging, or stressing, or both. Hydrogen-charging is capable of enhancing the local anodic dissolution of the steel. The resistance of corrosion product layer decreases with hydrogen-charging, and heat-affected zone has the largest dissolution current upon hydrogen-charging. The increase of applied stress enhanced the anodic dissolution of welded X70 steel, especially the heat-affected zone, in near-neutral pH solution. Maximum current is observed in heat-affected zone, and increases with the increase of applied stresses. The total synergistic effect of hydrogen-charging (10 mA/cm²) and applied stress (550 MPa) on anodic dissolution of welded X70 steel in near-neutral pH solution is determined to be within the range of 5.7 and 6.5, with a maximum value encountering in heat-affected zone.     

Effect of hydrogen peroxide on crack growth rate in X70 pipeline steel in weak acid solution

An investigation of the effect of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) on corrosion crack growth can be considered as a necessary stage in a study of the SCC of pipeline steels in the presence of dissolved oxygen and other oxidants. It was found that the presence of hydrogen peroxide at a low concentration (5?mM) results in a deceleration of the crack growth. With an increase in the concentration of H₂O₂, the crack growth rate increases. The change in the steel corrosion rate at various H₂O₂ concentrations agrees with the dependence of the crack growth rate on the oxidant concentration. The conclusion has been made that the crack growth in a weakly acidic electrolyte (pH 5.5) is determined by the metal dissolution process. Hydrogen charging of the metal indirectly affects the crack growth by increasing the surface coverage with hydrogen, which decreases the steel dissolution rate.     

X70钢焊接接头在近中性溶液中应力腐蚀行为研究

采用慢应变速率试验(SSRT)、扫描电镜以及电化学测量技术研究了X70管线钢焊接接头在近中性模拟土壤溶液中的应力腐蚀开裂(SCC)行为。结果表明,断口和柱面SCC裂纹均发生在热影响区(HAZ)。在试验溶液中,随着外加极化电位降低管线钢SCC敏感性增强,电位负移到一定电位值后,SCC敏感性减弱;随着溶液pH值降低,腐蚀速率增大,敏感电位区间负移。施加阴极电位时,在试样断口观察到明显的准解理脆断特征,断口和柱面有穿晶SCC裂纹。分析了焊接接头试样HAZ的SCC机理,在试验介质中,管线钢应力腐蚀开裂主要受阳极溶解和氢致开裂两种机理的联合作用,适当的电位可以使阳极溶解和氢致开裂的联合作用达到最大,从而造成较严重的应力腐蚀开裂。     

Formulating stress corrosion cracking growth rates by combination of crack tip mechanics and crack tip oxidation kinetics

A theoretical equation for stress corrosion crack growth rate of austenitic alloys in high temperature water is reformulated based on crack tip asymptotic fields and crack tip transient oxidation kinetics. A general oxidation kinetic law is introduced, emphasizing the role of mass transport through solid oxide film at the crack tip. The effects of several parameters on crack growth rate are evaluated. The results are compared with available experimental data and other equations. A good prediction of the effect of K on stress corrosion cracking growth rate of typical austenitic alloys in simulated light water reactor environments has been achieved.     

Influence of intermittent loading on SCC behavior for an X70 pipeline steel in a near neutral pH solution

The influence of intermittent loading on stress corrosion cracking (SCC) behavior for an X70 pipeline steel was studied using slow strain rate tests (SSRT) in a near neutral pH soil solution at various applied potentials. The d.c. potential drop method was used to measure the crack initiation and propagation. The crack length at the cross section of the fractured sample was observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that the crack initiation stress in solution was lower than the yield stress in air. SEM observation showed that the crack length was longer in intermittent loading than that in continuous loading. At anodic potential, the crack initiation stress was the lowest and the crack length was the longest. The crack kept growing during constant loading period.     

Crack tip chemistry and electrochemistry of environmental cracks in AA 7050

The role of the crack environment in establishing environment-assisted crack (EAC) propagation in AA 7050 alloys is elucidated. A suite of mini-electrodes provided real-time in situ measurements of the crack potential, pH, and chloride concentration during stage II cracking in a chromate-chloride electrolyte under electrochemical control. For material aged to an EAC-susceptible condition, crack growth during an incubation period is characterized by tip polarization to near the applied electrode potential (E_App) and bulk-like chemistry near the crack tip. In contrast, establishment of high-rate crack growth coincided with the development of an acidic, high chloride concentration tip environment and tip depolarization. During steady state high rate crack growth, the tip potential was ∼−0.85V_SCE; near-tip potential gradients were ∼1 V/cm. Large ohmic potential drop within fast-growing cracks is indicative of net anodic current in the near tip region and increased mass transport resistance within the crack due to solid corrosion products and/or hydrogen bubble formation. Microinjection of a corrosion-inhibiting or corrosion-promoting solution at the tip suppresses or prompts, respectively, the transition from incubation to high-rate cracking, highlighting the intimate dependence of the crack growth kinetics on the local chemistry. The exceptional EAC resistance of over-aged AA 7050 is intrinsic; injection of an acidic aluminum chloride solution at the tip of a crack of this material while polarized to a high E_App failed to induce brittle crack advance.     

X100管线钢奥氏体晶粒长大行为

通过控制加热温度和保温时间,研究了X100管线钢奥氏体晶粒尺寸分布和长大规律。结果表明,随着加热温度升高、保温时间延长,奥氏体晶粒呈现逐渐长大趋势。当加热温度在1050~1150 ℃时,奥氏体晶粒快速长大;温度高于1200 ℃时,出现明显粗大的晶粒。通过试验数据线性回归,经模拟、计算得到X100管线钢的奥氏体晶粒长大模型D_t^6.59=1.71×10²⁰exp(-379691.29/RT)t+,D₀^6.59经验证与试验数据拟合良好。     

Effect of corrosion medium composition on rate of crack growth in X70 pipeline steel

The growth rates of corrosion cracks in X70 pipeline steel are determined in weakly acidic (pH 5.5) buffer solution with additives of a number of compounds that are a part of the soil electrolyte or are steel corrosion inhibitors. It is shown that the effect of components of electrolyte on the rate of crack growth agrees fairly well with their stimulating or inhibiting effect on the anodic dissolution of iron. The rates of hydrogen permeation into steel are measured and the effect of hydrogen absorbed by the metal on the anodic process in the studied corrosion media is considered.     

Fatigue crack growth behaviour of 4130X steel in H2S environment

Abstract

Fatigue crack growth rates of 4130X steel used for compressed natural gas vessels were investigated in this paper. Considering the operating conditions, corrosion fatigue tests at a low frequency of 0·0067 Hz, in H₂S saturated, H₂S unsaturated and air environments were conducted on modified wedge opening load specimens by using a home made low cycle fatigue test system. Curve fitting was applied to the fatigue test data of da/dN–ΔK according to Paris formula. A correlation study between fracture surface and stress intensity factor range was conducted and K values for three stages in different environments were characterised quantitatively. The results show that da/dN in H₂S environment is more than 20 times faster than in an air environment. When the H₂S concentration reaches a certain range, the increase of da/dN becomes slower than that of the H₂S concentration. da/dN differs by 2·4 times while the concentration differs by 11 times. The corrosive environment accelerates the fatigue failure.     

X70管线钢焊接性分析

针对管道建设中日益广泛采用的X70管线钢，分析了其碳当量与冷、热裂纹敏感性问题，探讨了防止X70管线钢产生冷裂纹的工艺措施，计算了不同板厚X70管线钢的预热温度，为实际的管道建设提供了理论依据与工程指导。     

X70HD抗大变形管线钢热变形行为

通过考虑临界应变以后的软化机制,构建了包括动态回复和动态再结晶过程的金属热成形分段流变应力数学模型。利用Gleeble3500热模拟试验机进行了X70HD抗大变形管线钢低应变速率到高应变速率下的单道次热压缩实验,获得了应力-应变曲线,并确定了基于Z参数的特征点、待定参数值,验证了模型不但在低应变速率下适用,在高应变速率下仍具备较高的准确性;建立了从动态再结晶开始到完成整个过程被考虑在内的再结晶动力学模型,通过与基于Johnson-Mehl-Avrami(JMA)方程求得的动态再结晶实际体积分数相比较,表明该动力学模型具有很高的精确度,可为抗大变形管线钢生产中的组织、性能预报提供理论依据。     

Effect of three dimensional stress state on unstable fracture condition and crack opening level in a new crack growth model

A new model for the analysis of fatigue crack growth in the metal structures was proposed. This model shows a promising capability of explaining various fatigue phenomena. The new crack growth model is further completed by a continuous empirical formula for estimating the value of variable fracture toughness during crack propagation and a modified continuous equation for the crack tip stress/strain constraint factor used to calculate the stress intensity factor at the opening level. The prediction results are proved to agree well with the observed phenomena in test.     

电极电位和温度对X70钢在高pH值模拟土壤环境中应力腐蚀破裂的影响

采用慢应变速率拉伸试验(SSRT)方法研究了温度(30~65℃范围)和电极电位(-1500~-200 mV(SCE)范围)对X70管线钢在0.5 mol/L Na2CO3 1 mol/L NaHCO3的高pH模拟土壤溶液中应力腐蚀破裂(SCC)行为的影响。结果表明:在阳极极化区,温度对该钢的SCC敏感性影响不大,在阴极极化区,SCC敏感性随温度升高而下降;在所研究的电位区间,SCC敏感性随着电极电位的降低而增大;SCC机理分析表明,当电位E>EH(溶液中H /H2的平衡电位)时,应该是阳极溶解占主导,而当E≤EH时,氢致破裂占主导。     

Stress corrosion cracking initiation under the disbonded coating of pipeline steel in near-neutral pH environment

A novel test setup has been used in this study to simulate stress corrosion cracking initiation under a disbonded coating on an X-65 pipeline steel. In this setup, the synergistic effects of cyclic loading, cathodic protection and soil solution environment under disbonded coatings have been considered. When the X-65 pipeline steel was exposed to the test environment, there existed a wide range of corrosion products on the steel surface in the gradient of cathodic protection. Increasing the test time and the maximum stress increased the possibility of stress corrosion cracking initiation in regions with a high susceptibility to pitting corrosion.     

X70管线钢连续冷却过程中的相变行为

利用Gleeble-3500热模拟机研究了X70管线钢未变形和经双道次变形后连续冷却过程的相变行为,采用热膨胀法结合金相法建立了静态和动态连续冷却转变曲线,分析了冷却速度和变形参数对组织转变的影响规律。结果表明,热变形加速针状铁素体和多边形铁素体相变,使相变的开始温度和结束温度显著提高,CCT曲线明显向左上方移动。实际中为获得针状铁素体组织,需相应增加变形后的冷却速度。与同一冷速下未经变形的连续冷却转变的组织相比,热变形可以显著细化组织,使组织中的岛状物更加细小弥散,通过变形可以在更宽的冷速范围内获得针状铁素体。     

Environmentally assisted cracking mechanism of pipeline steel in near-neutral pH groundwater

A modified Devanathan dual cell was used in environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) tests to independently control the concentration of dissolved hydrogen and anodic current density. The experimental evidence indicates that the corrosion may reduce the micro-hardness of steel, suggesting a dissolution-induced degradation of the mechanical properties in the surface layer. An EAC model is described in which surface micro-plastic deformation can be enhanced by the dissolved hydrogen and anodic dissolution, and plays a crucial role in cracking processes. The model can provide a reasonable prediction for the dependence of the cracking resistance of pipeline steel on the applied potential.     

The effect of hydrogen peroxide on crack growth rate in X70 pipeline steel under static load

The dependence of the crack growth rate in X70 pipeline steel on the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in a citrate buffer solution (pH 5.5) is found to have a minimum. The phenomenon is explained by the effect of hydrogen peroxide on the permeation rate of hydrogen in the metal, which in turn determines the dissolution rate of iron.