Co-localization of high-affinity neurotrophin receptors in nucleus basalis of Meynert neurons and their differential reduction in Alzheimer's disease

It has been suggested that degeneration of neurons in Alzheimer's disease is the result of diminished trophic support. However, so far no evidence has been forwarded that neuronal degeneration in Alzheimer's disease is causally related to insufficient production of neurotrophins. The present study deals with (i) the expression and co-localization of tyrosine kinase receptors (trks) in the human nucleus basalis of Meynert and (ii) alterations of these receptors in Alzheimer's disease in the nucleus basalis of Meynert, an area severely affected in Alzheimer's disease. The expression of trkA, trkB and trkC in the nucleus basalis of Meynert of control and Alzheimer's disease brains was studied using three polyclonal antibodies specifically recognizing the extracellular domain of trkA, trkB and trkC. Brain material of eight controls and seven Alzheimer's disease patients was obtained at autopsy, embedded in paraffin and stained immunocytochemically. Using an image analysis system, we determined the proportion of trk neurons expressing the different trk receptors in controls and Alzheimer's disease patients. In control brains, trkA, trkB and trkC were differentially expressed in numerous nucleus basalis of Meynert neurons. The highest proportion of neurons was found to express trkB (75%), followed by trkC (58%) and trkA (54%). Furthermore, using consecutive sections, a clear co-localization of trk receptors was observed in the same neurons. The highest degree of co-localization was observed between trkA and trkB. In Alzheimer's disease patients, the number of immunoreactive neurons and the staining intensity of individual neurons was reduced dramatically. Reduction in the proportion of neurons expressing trkA was 69%, in trkB 47% and in trkC 49%, which indicated a differential reduction in the amount of trk receptors in Alzheimer's disease. These observations indicate that nucleus basalis of Meynert neurons can be supported by more than one neurotrophin and that the degeneration of these neurons in Alzheimer's disease is associated with a decreased expression of trk receptors, suggesting a decreased neurotrophin responsiveness of nucleus basalis of Meynert neurons in Alzheimer's disease.     

Apolipoprotein E-associated risk for Alzheimer's disease in the African-American population is genotype dependent

As a part of our ongoing study on Alzheimer's disease (AD) in elderly African Americans, we obtained clinical assessment and apolipoprotein E (ApoE) genotype data on 288 individuals (including 60 with AD). The ApoE epsilon4 allele frequency was significantly increased in AD patients compared with controls. The age-adjusted odds ratio (OR) for AD in epsilon4 homozygotes was 4.83 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.71-13.64) compared with the epsilon3/epsilon3 genotype, but the OR for AD with the epsilon3/epsilon4 genotype did not reach significance (1.20; 95% CI, 0.58-2.45). These findings suggest that the association between ApoE epsilon4 and AD is weaker in African Americans than in whites.     

The serotonin inhibition of high-voltage-activated calcium currents is relieved by action potential-like depolarizations in dissociated cholinergic nucleus basalis neurons of the guinea-pig

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the voltage-dependent inhibition of calcium currents by serotonin 5-HT1A agonists can be alleviated (facilitated) by action potential-like depolarizations. In dissociated cholinergic basal forebrain neurons using whole-cell recordings, it is shown that a selective serotonin 5-HT1A agonist (8-OH-DPAT) predominantly blocks N-type HVA calcium current, although a minor reduction of P-type current was also observed. The inhibition may principally occur through Gi-Go subtypes of G-proteins because it was prevented by N-ethylmaleimide, a substance known to block specifically pertussis-sensitive G-proteins. The inhibitory effect of 8-OH-DPAT on calcium currents is voltage-dependent because it was alleviated by long-lasting depolarizing prepulses. Interestingly, the inhibition could also be reversed by prepulses made-up of action potential-like depolarizations that were given at a frequency of 200 Hz. This observation may have important implications during periods of high-frequency rhythmic bursts, a firing pattern that is prevalent in cholinergic basal forebrain neurons.     

Distortion of allelic expression of apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer's disease

The APOE epsilon4 allele is a strong genetic susceptibility factor for Alzheimer's disease. Interaction with other biological factors may modulate the effect of the apoE isoforms. However, previous work suggested that other genetic variability within the APOE locus, influencing the effect of the epsilon4 allele, may exist. Such variability could modify the expression of the APOE gene and, in particular, the level of expression of APOE alleles could be an important determinant of disease pathogenesis. To test this hypothesis we examined the levels of expression of APOE in heterozygotes with AD and in controls, using a new method of semi-quantitation. We report that relative epsilon4 mRNA expression is increased in AD compared with controls and suggest that genetic variability in the neural expression of APOE contributes to disease risk.     

The apolipoprotein E allele epsilon 4 is overrepresented in patients with the Lewy body variant of Alzheimer's disease

We determined apolipoprotein E (ApoE) genotypes in 122 autopsied demented patients. The frequency of the ApoE epsilon 4 allele was 39.6% in Alzheimer's disease (AD), 29.0% in the Lewy body variant of AD (LBV), and 6.25% in diffuse Lewy body disease. For AD and LBV patients, the epsilon 4 frequency was significantly higher than that reported in nondemented controls (10 to 15%). Therefore, LBV and AD share ApoE epsilon 4 as a genetic risk factor, providing further evidence that these conditions overlap.     

Rats with nucleus basalis magnocellularis lesions mimic mnemonic symptomatology observed in patients with dementia of the Alzheimer's type.

College students, healthy elderly subjects, patients diagnosed with mild or moderate dementia of the Alzheimer's type, as well as rats with small or large lesions of nucleus basalis magnocellularis (NBM) were tested on an order memory task for a 6- or 8-item list of varying spatial locations. Similar patterns of order memory deficits as a function of serial order position were observed in rats with small or large NBM lesions and patients with mild or moderate dementia of the Alzheimer's type. The results provide support for the possibility that rats with NBM lesions might mimic the mnemonic symptomatology of Alzheimer's disease. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Severe pathological changes of parabrachial nucleus in Alzheimer's disease

In the first of a series of studies aimed at mapping brain stem pathological changes in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), we report a new finding regarding the parabrachial nucleus (PBN), a unit of paramount importance in the relay and integration of visceral and nociceptive information as well as in homeostatic control. The brains of 20 patients with AD were surveyed. The PBN contained pervasive neuropathological changes in 100% of the brains from those with early-onset dementia and in 80% from those with late-onset dementia. These changes were entirely absent in all 10 normal controls. The pathological changes of PBN, would cause autonomic dysfunction in patients with AD and perhaps contribute to the disproportionate mortality encountered in these patients.     

Calbindin D-28k and monoamine oxidase A immunoreactive neurons in the nucleus basalis of Meynert in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type and Parkinson''s disease

The lungs must be kept "dry" for efficient gas exchange. The mechanisms that contribute to clear alveoli from fetal lung fluid at birth are still present during adult life and allow recovery from alveolar flooding. It has recently been shown with the use of different approaches in vitro, as well as in vivo, that alveolar epithelium performs solute-coupled fluid transport. Fluid absorption from alveoli occurs chiefly as a result of active transepithelial Na+ transport. The mechanisms of Na+ transport have been partly elucidated; Na+ enters alveolar cells through apical Na+ channels and Na(+)-coupled solute transporters and is pumped out at the basolateral membrane by a Na(+)-K(+)-adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase). Transepithelial Na+ transport and fluid absorption are stimulated by beta-adrenergic agonists, with adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate being the likely intracellular second messenger. K+ is probably secreted into alveoli because its concentration in the epithelial lining fluid is larger than expected for passive distribution. K+ channels have been described that, in conjunction with Na(+)-K(+)-ATP-ase, might provide pathways for active transport. Active proton secretion or bicarbonate absorption have been reported, which may explain the low pH of the alveolar epithelial lining fluid. It is probable that active solute transports are the main determinants of epithelial lining fluid depth and composition. A challenge for the future is to understand how this homeostasis is achieved.     

Distinct contributions of high- and low-voltage-activated calcium currents to afterhyperpolarizations in cholinergic nucleus basalis neurons of the guinea pig

The contributions made by low- (LVA) and high-voltage-activated (HVA) calcium currents to afterhyperpolarizations (AHPs) of nucleus basalis (NB) cholinergic neurons were investigated in dissociated cells. Neurons with somata >25 microM were studied because 80% of them stained positively for choline acetyltransferase and had electrophysiological characteristics identical to those of cholinergic NB neurons previously recorded in basal forebrain slices. Calcium currents of cholinergic NB neurons first were dissected pharmacologically into an amiloride-sensitive LVA and at least five subtypes of HVA currents. Approximately 17% of the total HVA current was sensitive to nifedipine (3 microM), 35% to omega-conotoxin-GVIA (200-400 nM), 10% to omega-Agatoxin-IVA (100 nM), and 20% to omega-Agatoxin-IVA (300-500 nM), suggesting the presence of L-, N-, P-, and Q-type channels, respectively. A remaining current (R-type) resistant to these antagonists was blocked by cadmium (100-200 microM). We then assessed pharmacologically the role that LVA and HVA currents had in activating the apamin-insensitive AHP elicited by a long train of action potentials (sAHP) and the AHP evoked either by a short burst of action potentials or by a single action potential (mAHP) that is known to be apamin-sensitive. During sAHPs, approximately 60% of the hyperpolarization was activated by calcium flowing through N-type channels and approximately 20% through P-type channels, whereas T-, L-, and Q-type channels were not involved significantly. In contrast, during mAHPs, N- and T-type channels played key roles (approximately 60 and 30%, respectively), whereas L-, P-, and Q-type channels were not implicated significantly. It is concluded that in cholinergic NB neurons various subtypes of calcium channels can differentially activate the apamin-sensitive mAHP and the apamin-insensitive sAHP.     

Noradrenalin enhances the activity of cochlear nucleus neurons in the rat

The cochlear nucleus of rats is heavily innervated by noradrenergic fibres from the locus coeruleus. The physiological meaning of this innervation is poorly understood. Therefore, iontophoretically applied noradrenalin was tested on single neurons of the cochlear nucleus in urethane-anaesthetized rats. Iontophoresis of noradrenalin had a dual effect. During application noradrenalin led to moderate inhibition of tone-evoked activity in 37% of the tested neurons. In contrast, approximately 20-30 s after the onset of iontophoresis a long-lasting increase in discharge activity was found in most neurons. Data from iontophoresis of the alpha1-receptor agonist phenylephrine and the alpha2-receptor agonist clonidine suggest that the fast moderate inhibition is mediated by alpha2-receptors while the pronounced long-lasting elevated neuronal firing is mediated by alpha1-receptors. However, these data do not exclude the possibility that part of the response to noradrenalin is also mediated by beta-receptors. Electrical stimulation of the locus coeruleus resulted in an increase in discharge activity comparable with iontophoresis of noradrenalin or phenylephrine. Thus, activation of the locus coeruleus predominantly increases spontaneous and tone-evoked neuronal firing in the cochlear nucleus of the rat. This alpha-receptor-mediated enhanced discharge activity may serve to increase the sensitivity of acoustic processing mechanisms or to lower the threshold for short-latency acoustic reflexes.     

Opposite roles of apolipoprotein E in normal brains and in Alzheimer's disease

We have characterized the interaction between apolipoprotein E (apoE) and amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) in the soluble fraction of the cerebral cortex of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and control subjects. Western blot analysis with specific antibodies identified in both groups a complex composed of the full-length apoE and Abeta peptides ending at residues 40 and 42. The apoE-Abeta soluble aggregate is less stable in AD brains than in controls, when treated with the anionic detergent SDS. The complex is present in significantly higher quantity in control than in AD brains, whereas in the insoluble fraction an inverse correlation has previously been reported. Moreover, in the AD subjects the Abeta bound to apoE is more sensitive to protease digestion than is the unbound Abeta. Taken together, our results indicate that in normal brains apoE efficiently binds and sequesters Abeta, preventing its aggregation. In AD, the impaired apoE-Abeta binding leads to the critical accumulation of Abeta, facilitating plaque formation.     

Utility of the apolipoprotein E genotype in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's Disease Centers Consortium on Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND: The epsilon4 allele of the gene encoding apolipoprotein E (APOE) is strongly associated with Alzheimer's disease, but its value in the diagnosis remains uncertain. METHODS: We reviewed clinical diagnoses and diagnoses obtained at autopsy in 2188 patients referred to 1 of 26 Alzheimer's disease centers for evaluation of dementia. The sensitivity and specificity of the clinical diagnosis or the presence of an APOE epsilon4 allele were calculated, with pathologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease used as the standard. The added value of the APOE genotype was estimated with pretest and post-test probabilities from multivariate analyses to generate receiver-operating-characteristic curves plotting sensitivity against the false positive rate. RESULTS: Of the 2188 patients, 1833 were given a clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease, and the diagnosis was confirmed pathologically in 1770 patients at autopsy. Sixty-two percent of patients with clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease, as compared with 65 percent of those with pathologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease, had at least one APOE epsilon4 allele. The sensitivity of the clinical diagnosis was 93 percent, and the specificity was 55 percent, whereas the sensitivity and specificity of the APOE epsilon4 allele were 65 and 68 percent, respectively. The addition of information about the APOE genotype increased the overall specificity to 84 percent in patients who met the clinical criteria for Alzheimer's disease, although the sensitivity decreased. The improvement in specificity remained statistically significant in the multivariate analysis after adjustment for differences in age, clinical diagnosis, sex, and center. CONCLUSIONS: APOE genotyping does not provide sufficient sensitivity or specificity to be used alone as a diagnostic test for Alzheimer's disease, but when used in combination with clinical criteria, it improves the specificity of the diagnosis.     

Neuropsychological function and apolipoprotein E genotype in the preclinical detection of Alzheimer's disease.

Nondemented older adults genotyped for the Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) ε4 allele (n?=?43) were neuropsychologically compared to participants without a copy of the ε4 allele (n?=?90). At baseline, the groups did not differ on age, education, gender, or global cognitive status. ApoE-ε4 participants demonstrated significantly poorer mean performances on delayed recall, but no significant group differences emerged on attention, language, constructional skills, psychomotor speed, or executive function. Significantly more ApoE-ε4 participants developed probable or questionable Alzheimer's disease (AD) compared with non-ε4 participants, suggesting that the group differences resulted from a preponderance of preclinical AD cases within the ε4 group and not from a direct influence of ApoE genotype on cognition. Cox proportional hazards analysis, adjusting for age, years of education, and global cognitive status, revealed that ApoE-ε4 allele status and measures of recall performance were significant and independent predictors of conversion to AD. Results support the importance of specific episodic memory changes and possession of the ApoE-ε4 allele in the preclinical detection of AD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression in Parkinson's disease is not accompanied by more corticotropin-releasing hormone expressing neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus

BACKGROUND: Depression is frequently encountered in Parkinson's disease (PD). In addition, more than half of the PD patients have a disturbed dexamethasone suppression test, which is associated with increased activity of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons. We recently found an increase in CRH neuron number, CRH-messenger RNA, and vasopressin colocalization in CRH neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of depressed patients, which may be involved in the pathogenesis of depression. METHODS: The number of neurons expressing CRH was determined in the PVN of 6 depressed PD patients with a high score (> or = 13) on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, 6 nondepressed PD patients, and 6 controls. RESULTS: The three groups did not differ in the number of neurons expressing CRH. CONCLUSIONS: We hypothesize that activation of CRH neurons in the PVN, as we recently observed in idiopathic depression, does not play an essential role in depression in PD.     

Selective lesions of the nucleus basalis magnocellularis impair cognitive flexibility.

The authors tested the hypothesis that the cholinergic nucleus basalis magnocellularis (NBM) is involved in solving problems requiring cognitive flexibility. Rats with 192 IgG-saporin lesions of the NBM were assessed for perseveration (i.e., cognitive inflexibility) in the serial reversal of an operant discrimination and during subsequent extinction testing. It was hypothesized that the NBM lesion and control groups would not differ in the acquisition of the initial, simple discrimination, because this task does not demand cognitive flexibility. In contrast, it was hypothesized that the NBM lesion group would show perseveration during serial reversal and extinction testing. Results generally supported these hypotheses, suggesting that the NBM plays an important role in mediating cognitive flexibility. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neural activity of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson's disease patients

The neural activity pattern of the subthalmic nucleus (STN) was investigated in five patients with Parkinson's disease who were scheduled for electrode implantation for chronic stimulation of the STN. The initial target was placed 8 mm or 10 mm lateral to the midline, 3 mm to 4 mm posterior to the midcommissural point, and 5 mm to 6 mm below the intercommissural (AC-PC) line. The STN was identified by semi-microelectrode recordings with a trajectory moving laterally in 2-mm steps. The amplitudes of multi-unit activities were relatively low at depths from 8 mm to 5 mm above and from 1 mm to 4 mm below the target, while those 4 mm to 0 mm above the target were significantly higher than at the other sites (ANOVA, Fisher's test, p < 0.05), with the highest amplitude at 2 mm above the target (91.0 +/- 23.3 mu v, n = 15). In the mediolateral direction, amplitudes were relatively higher in the lateral portion, and amplitudes at 14 mm lateral to the midline were significantly higher than at the other sites (ANOVA, Fisher's test, p < 0.05). The target for chronic electrical stimulation was determined to be at the midpoint of the hyperactive STN, i.e., 12 mm lateral to the midline in three patients and 13 mm lateral in two patients. Movement-related neural activity was observed at 5 sites, i.e., 3 sites responded to passive movement of the contralateral wrist and 2 sites to passive knee and/or ankle movement. In conclusion, our data show that the lateral part of the STN is hyperactive in PD, and recordings of neural activities contributed greatly to identifying the STN and determining the target for chronic stimulation within it.     

A newly identified polymorphism in the apolipoprotein E enhancer gene region is associated with Alzheimer's disease and strongly with the epsilon 4 allele

Apolipoprotein E allele 4 (apoE epsilon 4) is a major risk factor for late-onset AD. Inheritance of this allele is associated with an earlier age of onset of dementia in individuals with AD. It is unknown whether other polymorphisms in the apoE gene may influence the effect of apoE epsilon 4 on AD. We screened portions of the promoter enhancer element and of the apoE receptor binding domain for other polymorphisms that could affect risk of AD. In particular, a C/G polymorphism at position +113 of the apoE mRNA in the apoE intron 1 enhancer element (IE1) has been recently identified. We found no other polymorphisms. We studied the relationship of the two alleles of the IE1 polymorphism with AD and found an apparent association between IE1 G and AD (n = 94; p = 0.0515). However, the IE1 G allele is also closely associated with apoE epsilon 4 (p < 0.0001). When the presence of apoE epsilon 4 is covaried, the association between the IE1 G allele and AD is no longer statistically significant (odds ratio = 1.29, 95% confidence interval: 0.44, 3.78). In contrast, epsilon 4 is still highly associated with AD when IE1 G is controlled for (odds ratio = 5.91, 95% confidence interval: 3.29, 10.63). Furthermore, there is no significant association between the age of onset of dementia and the inheritance of the G allele. We believe that the apparent association between IE1 G and AD is a consequence of the association between the epsilon 4 and IE1 G alleles.     

Effects of saccades on the activity of neurons in the cat lateral geniculate nucleus

Effects of saccades on individual neurons in the cat lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) were examined under two conditions: during spontaneous saccades in the dark and during stimulation by large, uniform flashes delivered at various times during and after rewarded saccades made to small visual targets. In the dark condition, a suppression of activity began 200-300 ms before saccade start, peaked approximately 100 ms before saccade start, and smoothly reversed to a facilitation of activity by saccade end. The facilitation peaked 70-130 ms after saccade end and decayed during the next several hundred milliseconds. The latency of the facilitation was related inversely to saccade velocity, reaching a minimum for saccades with peak velocity >70-80 degrees /s. Effects of saccades on visually evoked activity were remarkably similar: a facilitation began at saccade end and peaked 50-100 ms later. When matched for saccade velocity, the time courses and magnitudes of postsaccadic facilitation for activity in the dark and during visual stimulation were identical. The presaccadic suppression observed in the dark condition was similar for X and Y cells, whereas the postsaccadic facilitation was substantially stronger for X cells, both in the dark and for visually evoked responses. This saccade-related regulation of geniculate transmission appears to be independent of the conditions under which the saccade is evoked or the state of retinal input to the LGN. The change in activity from presaccadic suppression to postsaccadic facilitation amounted to an increase in gain of geniculate transmission of approximately 30%. This may promote rapid central registration of visual inputs by increasing the temporal contrast between activity evoked by an image near the end of a fixation and that evoked by the image immediately after a saccade.     

Brain alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex activity in Alzheimer's disease

We measured the activity of the alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (alpha-KGDHC), a rate-limiting Krebs cycle enzyme, in postmortem brain samples from 38 controls and 30 neuropathologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease (AD) cases, in both the presence and absence of thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), the enzyme's cofactor. Statistically significant correlations between brain pH and lactate levels and alpha-KGDHC activity in the controls were observed, suggesting an influence of agonal status on the activity of alpha-KGDHC. As compared with the controls, mean alpha-KGDHC activity, with added TPP, was significantly (p < 0.005) reduced in AD brain in frontal (-56%), temporal (-60%), and parietal (-68%) cortices, with the reductions (-25 to -53%) in the occipital cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and caudate failing to reach statistical significance. In the absence of exogenously administered TPP, mean alpha-KGDHC activity was reduced to a slightly greater extent in all seven AD brain areas (-39 to -83%), with the reductions now reaching statistical significance in the four cerebral cortical areas and hippocampus. A statistically significant negative correlation was observed between alpha-KGDHC activity and neurofibrillary tangle count in AD parietal cortex, the brain area exhibiting the most marked reduction in enzyme activity; this suggests that the enzyme activity reduction in AD brain may be related to the disease process and severity. In each brain area examined, TPP produced a greater stimulatory effect on alpha-KGDHC activity in the AD group (23-280% mean stimulation) as compared with the controls (-4 to +50%); this TPP effect could be explained by reduced endogenous TPP levels in AD brain.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)