NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTS FOR CLIMATE VARIABILITY OF MONSOON UNDER THE UNITED EFFECTS OF ANTARCTIC ICE COVER AND SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE*

In order to study the mechanisms of climate natural variability under the united effects of antarctic ice cover(AIC) and sea surface temperature(SST),we have done a series of numerical experiments for the climate variability of the period from January 1981 to December 1983 by using a threelevel atmospheric general circulation model(AGCM).Firstly we conduct climate integration for sixyears,then 3 years' control integration from January 16 of the seventh year.Moreover,we do threesensitivity experiments,which are the sensitivity experiments forced by observed SST and AIC.observed SST and climatic AIC,observed AIC and climatic SST respectively,to study the climate variability and its mechanisms affected by SST and AIC.We put emphasis on the variability of East Asiamonsoon and the Southern Hemisphere(SH) circulation.In this paper,introduction is made to theresults of control test and the sensitivity experiment forced by observed SST and AIC,and the predictability of the monsoon climate variability is discussed.     

Limitations of time-slice experiments for predicting regional climate change over South Asia

While time-slice simulations with atmospheric general circulation models (GCMs) have been used for many years to regionalize climate projections and/or assess their uncertainties, there is still no consensus about the method used to prescribe sea surface temperature (SST) in such experiments. In the present study, the response of the Indian summer monsoon to increasing amounts of greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols is compared between a reference climate scenario and three sets of time-slice experiments, consisting of parallel integrations for present-day and future climates. Different monthly mean SST boundary conditions have been tested in the present-day integrations: raw climatological SST derived from the reference scenario, observed climatological SST, and observed SST with interannual variability. For future climate, the SST forcing has been obtained by superimposing climatological monthly mean SST anomalies derived from the reference scenario onto the present-day SST boundary conditions. None of these sets of time-slice experiments is able to capture accurately the response of the Indian summer monsoon simulated in the transient scenario. This finding suggests that the ocean–atmosphere coupling is a fundamental feature of the climate system. Neglecting the SST feedback and variability at the intraseasonal to interannual time scales has a significant impact on the projected monsoon response to global warming. Adding interannual variability in the prescribed SST boundary conditions does not mitigate the problem, but can on the contrary reinforce the discrepancies between the forced and coupled experiments. The monsoon response is also shown to depend on the simulated control climate, and can therefore be sensitive to the use of observed rather than model-derived SSTs to drive the present-day atmospheric simulation, as well as to any approximation in the prescribed radiative forcing. While such results do not challenge the use of time-slice experiments for assessing uncertainties and understanding mechanisms in transient scenarios, they emphasize the need for high-resolution coupled atmosphere-ocean GCMs for dynamical downscaling, or at least for high-resolution atmospheric GCMs coupled with a slab or a regional ocean model.     

中国周边海域海面温度日变化对区域气候的影响

利用区域气候模式,分别以逐时海面温度(sea surface temperature, SST)数据及逐日SST数据作为模式的海表温度进行强迫,开展了1991～2010年共计20年的数值模拟,探讨SST日变化对中国区域气候变化的影响。对比结果表明,两组试验均能合理地再现中国区域气候的主要气候态特征。同时发现,两组试验模拟的气候特征在我国沿海区域以及近海洋面上存在明显差异:考虑SST日变化之后,2 m气温和感热通量差异呈现夏季(冬季)升高(降低)为主的趋势;潜热通量则与之相反;低层风场差异在夏季以海洋吹向大陆的东南风为主,冬季则以陆面吹向海洋的西北风差异为主;另外,水汽输送差异呈气旋式(反气旋式)时,降水出现正差异(负差异)。SST日变化对上述气候因子的影响在夏季更为显著。     

Impact of local sea surface temperature anomaly over the western North Pacific on extreme East Asian summer monsoon

In this study, the anomalous characteristics of observed large-scale synoptic fields in the extreme East Asian summer monsoon (EASM) years are analyzed, and the impact of the local sea surface temperature (SST) anomaly over the western North Pacific (WNP) on the extreme EASM is investigated through sensitivity experiments of 28?years EASM simulations to the local SST over the WNP. The observation analysis reveals that the extreme EASM is influenced more by anomalous large-scale atmospheric features such as monsoon circulations and the western North Pacific subtropical high than the local SST anomaly over the WNP. However, the results of the sensitivity experiments show that the local SST anomaly has an implicit impact on the extreme EASM. The patterns of differences in precipitation between the experiment forced by observed SST in each year and the experiment forced by climatological SST over the WNP are opposite to anomaly patterns of observed precipitation in the extreme EASM years. This is because the SST anomaly over the WNP plays a role in reducing precipitation anomaly by changing surface latent heat flux and monsoon circulations. In particular, the local SST anomaly over the WNP decreases anomalies of large-scale circulations, i.e., the local Hadley and the Walker circulations. Thus, the local SST anomaly over the WNP plays a role in decreasing the interannual variability of the EASM.     

Links between tropical SST anomalies and precursory signalsassociated with the interannual variability of Asian summer monsoon

Summary ?The interannual variability of broad-scale Asian summer monsoon was studied using a general circulation model (GCM) and NCEP (National Center for Environmental Prediction) data set during 1979–95. In the GCM experiment, the main emphasis was given to isolate the individual role of surface boundary conditions on the existence of winter-spring time circulation anomalies associated with the interannual variability of Asian summer monsoon. In order to understand the role of sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) alone on the existence of precursory signals, we have conducted 17 years numerical integration with a GCM forced with the real-time monthly averaged SSTs of 1979 to 1995. In this experiment, among the many surface boundary conditions only SSTs are varying interannually. The composite circulation anomalies simulated by the GCM have good resemblance with the NCEP circulation anomalies over subtropical Asia. This suggests that the root cause of the existence of winter-spring time circulation anomalies associated with the interannual variability of Asian summer monsoon is the interannual variability of SST. Empirical Orthogonal Functions (EOFs) of 200-mb winds and OLR were constructed to study the dynamic coupling between SST anomalies and winter-spring time circulation anomalies. It is found that the convective heating anomalies associated with SST anomalies and stationary eddies undergo systematic and coherent interannual variations prior to summer season. We have identified Matsuno-Gill type mode in the velocity potential and stream function fields. This suggests the existence of dynamic links between the SST anomalies and the precursory signals of Asian summer monsoon. Received June 9, 1999/Revised April 7, 2000     

影响东亚季风环流异常因子的敏感性试验

文章使用改进了的OSU全球气候模式，动态地使用厄尔尼诺年（1972年）实际下垫面温度月距平资料，对太平洋海面温度异常以及太平洋中不同关键区海面温度异常进行了敏感性试验。数值试验结果表明:El Nino实际海温时空异常，特别是关键区海面温度异常，引起了东亚季风环流的异常变化，出现了干旱的环流形势。无论赤道中太平洋或是赤道东太平洋的海面温度异常都是敏感的影响因子，对预报有一定的指示意义。     

Future evolution of the Sahel precipitation zonal contrast in CESM1

The main focus of this study is the zonal contrast of the Sahel precipitation shown in the CMIP5 climate projections: precipitation decreases over the western Sahel (i.e., Senegal and western Mali) and increases over the central Sahel (i.e., eastern Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger). This zonal contrast in future precipitation change is a robust model response to climate change but suffers from a lack of an explanation. To this aim, we study the impact of current and future climate change on Sahel precipitation by using the Large Ensemble of the Community Earth System Model version 1 (CESM1). In CESM1, global warming leads to a strengthening of the zonal contrast, as shown by the difference between the 2060–2099 period (under a high emission scenario) and the 1960–1999 period (under the historical forcing). The zonal contrast is associated with dynamic shifts in the atmospheric circulation. We show that, in absence of a forced response, that is, when only accounting for internal climate variability, the zonal contrast is associated with the Pacific and the tropical Atlantic oceans variability. However, future patterns in sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies are not necessary to explaining the projected strengthening of the zonal contrast. The mechanisms underlying the simulated changes are elucidated by analysing a set of CMIP5 idealised simulations. We show the increase in precipitation over the central Sahel to be mostly associated with the surface warming over northern Africa, which favour the displacement of the monsoon cell northwards. Over the western Sahel, the decrease in Sahel precipitation is associated with a southward shift of the monsoon circulation, and is mostly due to the warming of the SST. These two mechanisms allow explaining the zonal contrast in precipitation change.

     

气候模拟研究进展

根据地回顾了大约４０年来气候模拟研究的发展过程，指出根据研究的目标可以分为三个阶段；模拟大气平均状况、敏感性实验及气候变率的模拟，着重总结了近年来气候变率模拟的最新成果，包括对印度夏季风降水，萨赫勒干旱、气候变率、世界三大涛动、ＥＮＳＯ循环及中国旱涝型的模拟研究。     

Decadal/interdecadal variations of the ocean temperature and its impacts on climate

Decadal/interdecadal climate variability is an important research focus of the CLIVAR Program and has been paid more attention. Over recent years, a lot of studies in relation to interdecadal climate variations have been also completed by Chinese scientists. This paper presents an overview of some advances in the study of decadal/interdecadal variations of the ocean temperature and its climate impacts, which includes interdecadal climate variability in China, the interdecadal modes of sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the North Pacific, and in particular, the impacts of interdecadal SST variations on the Asian monsoon rainfall. As summarized in this paper, some results have been achieved by using climate diagnostic studies of historical climatic datasets. Two fundamental interdecadal SST variability modes (7– 10-years mode and 25–35-years mode) have been identified over the North Pacific associated with different anomalous patterns of atmospheric circulation. The southern Indian Ocean dipole (SIOD) shows a major feature of interdecadal variation, with a positive (negative) phase favoring a weakened (enhanced) Asian summer monsoon in the following summer. It is also found that the China monsoon rainfall exhibits interdecadal variations with more wet (dry) monsoon years in the Yangtze River (South China and North China) before 1976, but vice versa after 1976. The weakened relationship between the Indian summer rainfall and ENSO is a feature of interdecadal variations, suggesting an important role of the interdecadal variation of the SIOD in the climate over the south Asia and southeast Asia. In addition, evidence indicates that the climate shift in the 1960s may be related to the anomalies of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and North Pacific Oscillation (NPO). Overall, the present research has improved our understanding of the decadal/interdecadal variations of SST and their impacts on the Asian monsoon rainfall. However, the research also highlights a number of problems for future research, in particular the mechanisms responsible for the monsoon long-term predictability, which is a great challenge in climate research.     

东亚持续强冬季风影响赤道海表温度初始异常的数值试验研究

通过数值模拟和理论分析 ,文中指出在强东亚季风期间不仅在欧亚大陆和北印度洋出现强大的反气旋环流异常 ,而且通过海气相互作用在北太平洋西部和西北部形成异常气旋式流场 ;在其东南部产生异常反气旋式流场。在这种流场异常的驱动下赤道西太平洋西风加强 ,海面升高 ,海表温度上升 ,赤道中东印度洋和东太平洋东风加强 ,海面降低 ,海表温度下降。证明由于海表温度异常及海表温度变化趋势存在积分关系 ,因此持续的强东亚冬季风所强迫的沿赤道海表温度变化趋势的上述分布的强讯号可以在海洋中存在近一年之久 ,为尔后赤道太平洋 ENSO事件的可能发展提供初始条件 ,也为跨季度气候预测提供前期讯号     

Roles of Indian and Pacific Ocean air–sea coupling in tropical atmospheric variability

Sea surface temperature (SST) variations include negative feedbacks from the atmosphere, whereas SST anomalies are specified in stand-alone atmospheric general circulation simulations. Is the SST forced response the same as the coupled response? In this study, the importance of air–sea coupling in the Indian and Pacific Oceans for tropical atmospheric variability is investigated through numerical experiments with a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model. The local and remote impacts of the Indian and Pacific Ocean coupling are obtained by comparing a coupled simulation with an experiment in which the SST forcing from the coupled simulation is specified in either the Indian or the Pacific Ocean. It is found that the Indian Ocean coupling is critical for atmospheric variability over the Pacific Ocean. Without the Indian Ocean coupling, the rainfall and SST variations are completely different throughout most of the Pacific Ocean basin. Without the Pacific Ocean coupling, part of the rainfall and SST variations in the Indian Ocean are reproduced in the forced run. In regions of large mean rainfall where the atmospheric negative feedback is strong, such as the North Indian Ocean and the western North Pacific in boreal summer, the atmospheric variability is significantly enhanced when air–sea coupling is replaced by specified SST forcing. This enhancement is due to the lack of the negative feedback in the forced SST simulation. In these regions, erroneous atmospheric anomalies could be induced by specified SST anomalies derived from the coupled model. The ENSO variability is reduced by about 20% when the Indian Ocean air–sea coupling is replaced by specified SST forcing. This change is attributed to the interfering roles of the Indian Ocean SST and Indian monsoon in western and central equatorial Pacific surface wind variations.     

Seasonally asymmetric transition of the Asian monsoon in response to ice age boundary conditions

Modulation of a monsoon under glacial forcing is examined using an atmosphere?Cocean coupled general circulation model (AOGCM) following the specifications established by Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project phase 2 (PMIP2) to understand the air?Csea?Cland interaction under different climate forcing. Several sensitivity experiments are performed in response to individual changes in the continental ice sheet, orbital parameters, and sea surface temperature (SST) in the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM: 21?ka) to evaluate the driving mechanisms for the anomalous seasonal evolution of the monsoon. Comparison of the model results in the LGM with the pre-industrial (PI) simulation shows that the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are characterized by enhancement of pre-monsoon convection despite a drop in the SST encompassing the globe, while the rainfall is considerably suppressed in the subsequent monsoon period. In the LGM winter relative to the PI, anomalies in the meridional temperature gradient (MTG) between the Asian continents minus the tropical oceans become positive and are consistent with the intensified pre-monsoon circulation. The enhanced MTG anomalies can be explained by a decrease in the condensation heating relevant to the suppressed tropical convection as well as positive insolation anomalies in the higher latitude, showing an opposing view to a warmer future climate. It is also evident that a latitudinal gradient in the SST across the equator plays an important role in the enhancement of pre-monsoon rainfall. As for the summer, the sensitivity experiments imply that two ice sheets over the northern hemisphere cools the air temperature over the Asian continent, which is consistent with the reduction of MTG involved in the attenuated monsoon. The surplus pre-monsoon convection causes a decrease in the SST through increased heat loss from the ocean surface; in other words, negative ocean feedback is also responsible for the subsequent weakening of summer convection.     

Effects of the low-frequency zonal wind variation on the high frequency atmospheric variability over the tropics

Recently, there is increasing evidence on the interaction of atmospheric high-frequency (HF) variability with climatic low-frequency (LF) variability. In this study, we examine this relationship of HF variability with large scale circulation using idealized experiments with an aqua-planet Atmospheric GCM (with zonally uniform SST), run in different zonal momentum forcing scenarios. The effect of large scale circulation changes to the HF variability is demonstrated here. The HF atmospheric variability is enhanced over the westerly forced region, through easterly vertical shear. Our study also manifests that apart from the vertical wind shear, strong low-level convergence and horizontal zonal wind shear are also important for enhancing the HF variance. This is clearly seen in the eastern part of the forcing, where the HF activity shows relatively maximum increase, in spite of similar vertical shear over the forced regions. The possible implications for multi-scale interaction (e.g. MJO–ENSO interaction) are also discussed.     

有关东亚季风的形成及其变率的研究

季风是全球气候系统中一种重要的大气环流系统,随着气候学研究及季风动力学研究的深入,国内外学者对季风的形成及其变率问题的研究取得了很大进展.回顾了近年来国内外关于亚洲季风的认识与形成机制的研究,特别是对东亚季风爆发及其过程的影响因子的认识.此外,对于东亚季风的季节性变化、低频振荡、年际和年代际变化及其可能机制也进行了分析、讨论.最后提出了在季风动力学研究方面需要进一步探讨的问题.     

The Influence of Regional SSTs on the Interdecadal Shift of the East Asian Summer Monsoon

East Asia has experienced a significant interdecadal climate shift since the late 1970s. This shift was accompanied by a decadal change of global SST. Previous studies have suggested that the decadal shift of global SST background status played a substantial role in such a climatic shift. However, the individual roles of different regional SSTs remain unclear. In this study, we investigated these roles using ensemble experiments of an atmospheric general circulation model, GFDL (Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory) AM2. Two kinds of ensembles were performed. The first was a control ensemble in which the model was driven with the observed climatological SSTs. The second was an experimental ensemble in which the model was driven with the observed climatological SSTs plus interdecadal SST background shifts in separate ocean regions. The results suggest that the SST shift in the tropics exerted more important influence than those in the extratropics, although the latter contribute to the shift modestly. The variations of summer monsoonal circulation systems, including the South Asian High, the West Pacific Subtropical High, and the lower-level air flow, were analyzed. The results show that, in comparison with those induced by extratropical SSTs, the shifts induced by tropical SSTs bear more similarity to the observations and to the simulations with global SSTs prescribed. In particular, the observed SST shift in the tropical Pacific Ocean, rather than the Indian Ocean, contributed significantly to the shift of East Asian summer monsoon since the 1970s.     

云南夏季旱涝与前期冬季环流变化的关系

夏季气候异常的前期信号特征分析一直是短期气候预测工作的重点。利用1948—2004年NCEP/NCAR月平均再分析资料、1961—2004年云南124个站的月平均降水和1948—2003年英国Hadley中心的月平均海温资料, 分析了云南夏季旱涝的时空特征, 探讨了云南夏季旱涝与前期大气环流和大气热力状态变化的关系, 发现云南夏季旱涝前冬12月—1月, 特别是1月东亚中高纬度地区的大气环流变化和赤道附近高低层大气的热力状态对云南夏季旱涝有重要的指示意义, 当前冬东亚大槽强 (弱), 冬季风强 (弱), 赤道附近高低层大气温度偏低 (高) 时, 后期云南夏季降水偏多 (少)。同时, 初步探讨了东亚冬夏季风环流变化的相互联系及热带海温变化的可能影响, 指出冬季到夏季印度洋和赤道西太平洋地区持续的海温异常有可能通过改变夏季海陆的热力对比, 进而影响夏季风活动和云南夏季降水的变化。     

The Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land system model, Spectral Version 2: FGOALS-s2

The Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System model, Spectral Version 2 (FGOALS-s2) was used to simulate realistic climates and to study anthropogenic influences on climate change. Specifically, the FGOALS-s2 was integrated with Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) to conduct coordinated experiments that will provide valuable scientific information to climate research communities. The performances of FGOALS-s2 were assessed in simulating major climate phenomena, and documented both the strengths and weaknesses of the model. The results indicate that FGOALS-s2 successfully overcomes climate drift, and realistically models global and regional climate characteristics, including SST, precipitation, and atmospheric circulation. In particular, the model accurately captures annual and semi-annual SST cycles in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, and the main characteristic features of the Asian summer monsoon, which include a low-level southwestern jet and five monsoon rainfall centers. The simulated climate variability was further examined in terms of teleconnections, leading modes of global SST (namely, ENSO), Pacific Decadal Oscillations (PDO), and changes in 19th–20th century climate. The analysis demonstrates that FGOALS-s2 realistically simulates extra-tropical teleconnection patterns of large-scale climate, and irregular ENSO periods. The model gives fairly reasonable reconstructions of spatial patterns of PDO and global monsoon changes in the 20th century. However, because the indirect effects of aerosols are not included in the model, the simulated global temperature change during the period 1850–2005 is greater than the observed warming, by 0.6°C. Some other shortcomings of the model are also noted.     

A further assessment of vegetation feedback on decadal Sahel rainfall variability

The effect of vegetation feedback on decadal-scale Sahel rainfall variability is analyzed using an ensemble of climate model simulations in which the atmospheric general circulation model ICTPAGCM (“SPEEDY”) is coupled to the dynamic vegetation model VEGAS to represent feedbacks from surface albedo change and evapotranspiration, forced externally by observed sea surface temperature (SST) changes. In the control experiment, where the full vegetation feedback is included, the ensemble is consistent with the observed decadal rainfall variability, with a forced component 60 % of the observed variability. In a sensitivity experiment where climatological vegetation cover and albedo are prescribed from the control experiment, the ensemble of simulations is not consistent with the observations because of strongly reduced amplitude of decadal rainfall variability, and the forced component drops to 35 % of the observed variability. The decadal rainfall variability is driven by SST forcing, but significantly enhanced by land-surface feedbacks. Both, local evaporation and moisture flux convergence changes are important for the total rainfall response. Also the internal decadal variability across the ensemble members (not SST-forced) is much stronger in the control experiment compared with the one where vegetation cover and albedo are prescribed. It is further shown that this positive vegetation feedback is physically related to the albedo feedback, supporting the Charney hypothesis.     

Twentieth century Walker Circulation change: data analysis and model experiments

Recent studies indicate a weakening of the Walker Circulation during the twentieth century. Here, we present evidence from an atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) forced by the history of observed sea surface temperature (SST) that the Walker Circulation may have intensified rather than weakened. Observed Equatorial Indo-Pacific Sector SST since 1870 exhibited a zonally asymmetric evolution: While the eastern part of the Equatorial Pacific showed only a weak warming, or even cooling in one SST dataset, the western part and the Equatorial Indian Ocean exhibited a rather strong warming. This has resulted in an increase of the SST gradient between the Maritime Continent and the eastern part of the Equatorial Pacific, one driving force of the Walker Circulation. The ensemble experiments with the AGCM, with and without time-varying external forcing, suggest that the enhancement of the SST gradient drove an anomalous atmospheric circulation, with an enhancement of both Walker and Hadley Circulation. Anomalously strong precipitation is simulated over the Indian Ocean and anomalously weak precipitation over the western Pacific, with corresponding changes in the surface wind pattern. Some sensitivity to the forcing SST, however, is noticed. The analysis of twentieth century integrations with global climate models driven with observed radiative forcing obtained from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) database support the link between the SST gradient and Walker Circulation strength. Furthermore, control integrations with the CMIP models indicate the existence of strong internal variability on centennial timescales. The results suggest that a radiatively forced signal in the Walker Circulation during the twentieth century may have been too weak to be detectable.     

Dependence of Indian monsoon rainfall on moisture fluxes across the Arabian Sea and the impact of coupled model sea surface temperature biases

The Arabian Sea is an important moisture source for Indian monsoon rainfall. The skill of climate models in simulating the monsoon and its variability varies widely, while Arabian Sea cold sea surface temperature (SST) biases are common in coupled models and may therefore influence the monsoon and its sensitivity to climate change. We examine the relationship between monsoon rainfall, moisture fluxes and Arabian Sea SST in observations and climate model simulations. Observational analysis shows strong monsoons depend on moisture fluxes across the Arabian Sea, however detecting consistent signals with contemporaneous summer SST anomalies is complicated in the observed system by air/sea coupling and large-scale induced variability such as the El Ni?o-Southern Oscillation feeding back onto the monsoon through development of the Somali Jet. Comparison of HadGEM3 coupled and atmosphere-only configurations suggests coupled model cold SST biases significantly reduce monsoon rainfall. Idealised atmosphere-only experiments show that the weakened monsoon can be mainly attributed to systematic Arabian Sea cold SST biases during summer and their impact on the monsoon-moisture relationship. The impact of large cold SST biases on atmospheric moisture content over the Arabian Sea, and also the subsequent reduced latent heat release over India, dominates over any enhancement in the land-sea temperature gradient and results in changes to the mean state. We hypothesize that a cold base state will result in underestimation of the impact of larger projected Arabian Sea SST changes in future climate, suggesting that Arabian Sea biases should be a clear target for model development.