Perfluoroalkane acids in human milk under the global monitoring plan of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2008–2019)

● Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid and perfluorooctanoic acid highest in human milk. ● All other perfluoroalkane substances had median values of zero (101 samples). ● Branched PFOS recommended to be analyzed separately from linear isomer. ● PFOS and PFOA showed differentiated regional and income distribution. ● Human health risk assessment values not yet available at global level. Within the global monitoring plan (GMP) established by article 16 of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) are recommended for analysis in core matrices to assess occurrence and changes geographically and with time. In 101 samples consisting of 86 national pools and 15 pools from States in Brazil obtained between 2008 and 2019, PFHxS was detected in 17% of the national pools and none in Brazil. PFOA and PFOS had a detection frequency of 100% and 92%, respectively. Other perfluoroalkane substances (PFAS) had either low detection frequencies and median values of zero (carboxylic acids C₄–C₁₁; except PFOA) or could not be quantified in any sample (sulfonic acids, C₄–C₁₀, and long-chain carboxylic acids, C₁₂–C₁₄). Correlation between PFOA and PFOS was moderately (r = 0.58). Whereas median values were almost identical (18.9 pg/g f.w. for PFOS; 18.6 pg/g f.w. for PFOA), PFOS showed larger ranges (< 6.2 pg/g f.w.–212 pg/g f.w.) than PFOA (< 6.2 pg/g f.w.–63.4 pg/g f.w.). It was shown that wealthier countries had higher PFOA concentrations than poorer countries. No difference in concentrations was found for samples collected in countries having or not having ratified the Stockholm Convention amendments to list PFOS or PFOA. The goal to achieve 50% decrease in concentrations within ten years was met by Antigua and Barbuda, Kenya, and Nigeria for PFOS and by Antigua and Barbuda for PFOA. In a few cases, increases were observed; one country for PFOS, four countries for PFOA.     

Growth inhibition and DNA damage in the earthworm (Eisenia fetida) exposed to perfluorooctane sulphonate and perfluorooctanoic acid

An artificial soil method was applied to study the effects of perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) on earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Survival, growth inhibition and damage to DNA of earthworms were detected after 14 d acute exposure. The 14 d-LC₅₀ of PFOS and PFOA was 478.0?mg·kg^?1 dw and 759.6?mg·kg^?1 dw, respectively, indicating that they were of low toxicity. Both PFOS and PFOA could significantly inhibit the growth of earthworms after 14 d exposure, and growth inhibition rates increased with the greater concentrations of PFOS or PFOA, showing a dose–response relationship (PFOS: r?=?0.951, P r?=?0.962, P?P?50 of PFOS was lower than that of PFOA, the growth inhibition rate of earthworm exposed to PFOS was higher than that exposed to PFOA at the same concentration level, and the median values of TL, CL and OTM in PFOS treatments were also higher than those in PFOA treatments. In conclusion, both these fluorine compounds were moderately toxic to earthworms, but the PFOS effect was greater than that of PFOA.     

A review of spatial and temporal assessment of PFOS and PFOA contamination in China

The current state of concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in China is presented. While products that are known to degrade to either PFOS or PFOA have been used in China, concentrations in environmental media have been reported to be relatively low across China. Greater concentrations of PFOS and PFOA were observed in southern and eastern China than in other areas of China. Concentrations of PFOS and PFOA were relatively great in the Huangpu River, with concentrations of 20.5 ng l^?1 and 1590 ng l^?1, respectively. Surface waters of Dongguan and Shanghai were more contaminated by PFOS and PFOA than that of other cities. Dongguan was the only city in China in which PFOS value in surface water exceeded the water quality criterion, while PFOA concentration in Shanghai was 152 ng l^?1. Similar to other contaminants, point-source pollution was also the common pattern of PFOS and PFOA contamination. Concentrations of PFOS in human blood in China were relatively greater in China than other countries, with drinking water contamination given as the most likely source. Concentrations of PFOS in human blood have increased from the 1980s to the 2000s, while such a trend was not observed for PFOA.     

4种短链全氟化合物替代物在城市污水处理厂的污染特征研究

全氟辛烷羧酸(perfluorooctanoic acid,PFOA)和全氟辛烷磺酸(perfluorooctyl sulfonate,PFOS)等长链全氟化合物(perfluorinated compounds,PFCs)具有持久性、生物累积性和毒性,近年来发现一些短链PFCs具有相对较短的半衰期,可以成为PFOA和PFOS的替代品,这些物质包括C4和C6结构的PFCs,如全氟丁烷羧酸(perfluorobutanoic acid,PFBA)、全氟己烷羧酸(perfluorohexanoic acid,PFHx A)、全氟丁烷磺酸(perfluorobutyl sulfonate,PFBS)和全氟己烷磺酸(perfluorohexyl sulfonate,PFHx S)。为解析我国城市污水厂短链PFCs污染水平和地域分布特征,本研究调查了我国不同地区17座城市污水处理厂的进水、二沉出水和污泥中4种短链PFCs的分布和浓度水平。结果表明4种短链PFCs、PFOA和PFOS在17座污水厂进水中检出率均为100%(6种目标物单体浓度范围:0.19~274.72 ng·L-1);污泥中PFOS和PFOA检出率为100%(PFOS:2.08~72.31 ng·g-1,PFOA:1.03~24.81 ng·g-1),PFBA、PFHx A检出率为100%(0.60~3.33 ng·g-1),PFBS和PFHx S的检出率分别为42.11%和63.16%。在污水厂进水中,将PFOA和PFOS与其同类的短链PFCs浓度进行比较,发现短链PFCs分别相对于PFOA和PFOS的比例最高可达93.47%和94.57%。4种短链PFCs、PFOA和PFOS的地域分布差异明显,总浓度呈现出华东、华南地区高于西北、东北、华北地区的趋势,其中华东地区调查的污水处理厂浓度最高。污水厂4种短链替代物主要通过污水排放,不同污水厂的日排放总量(污泥和出水)为0.25~273.07 g·d-1,万吨水排放量范围为0.04~1.37 g。研究将为我国全氟化合物替代物污染和控制提供数据基础和科学依据。     

Perfluorinated compounds in water and sediment from coastal regions of the northern Bohai Sea,China

Concentrations of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and other perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) were measured in water and sediment from coastal Bohai Bay and surrounding rivers flowing into the bay. Of the 15 PFCs measured, PFOS and PFOA were detected with the greatest frequency. Concentrations in water ranged from<0.2 to 31 ng·L^?1 and<1.0 to 82 ng·L^?1 for PFOS and PFOA, respectively. Concentrations of PFOS and PFOA in sediments ranged from<0.1 to 2.0 ng·g^?1 dw and<0.1 to 0.5 ng·g^?1 dw, respectively. Concentrations of PFCs in Bohai Bay were less than those observed in other areas in Asia, but greater concentrations of ∑PFCs were observed in the Dalin River with concentrations increasing from upstream to downstream, and the greatest concentrations in sediment were observed in tidal flats. The ratio of ∑PFCs in sediment and water indicated that sediment could serve as a significant sink for PFUnA.     

全氟辛酸和全氟辛基磺酸的光降解技术及机理研究进展

目前,普遍存在于各种环境介质中的全氟辛酸(PFOA)和全氟辛基磺酸(PFOS)造成的环境污染问题已引起全球的广泛关注.PFOA和PFOS具有稳定性、持久性和生物累积性等特点.常规的方法如:超声降解法、电化学氧化法和微生物降解法等,很难将其彻底降解,因此开发有效的PFOA和PFOS降解技术成为了环境领域的研究重点.近年来...     

北京水源地鱼体全氟化合物的暴露水平及其健康风险

全氟化合物(PFASs)作为一类新型的有机污染物,因具有持久性、可长距离传输、生物蓄积性和生物毒性等POPs特性,近年来得到全世界的广泛关注。本文以北京市水源地(密云水库和官厅水库)为研究区域,采用固相萃取(SPE)前处理与高效液相色谱串联质谱联用(HPLC-MS/MS)相结合的方法,分析测定了鱼样品中包括全氟辛烷磺酸(PFOS)、全氟辛酸(PFOA)、全氟丁酸(PFBA)、全氟丁烷磺酸(PFBS)等在内的12种PFASs的含量。利用同位素法确定了不同种类鱼的营养级关系,研究不同营养级中的PFASs浓度及生物放大效应,重点对全氟辛烷磺酸(PFOS)与全氟辛酸(PFOA)的生态风险以及对人体的健康风险进行评价。结果表明:北京市水源地的鱼体中的PFASs存在不同程度的检出,其中,全氟辛烷磺酸(PFOS)、全氟辛酸(PFOA)、全氟壬酸(PFNA)、全氟癸酸(PFDA)、全氟十一酸(PFUdA)和全氟十二酸(PFDoA)的检出率均达到100%,PFASs总量浓度达1.70~14.32 ng·g~(-1) wet weight(w.w.),PFOS和长链全氟羧酸PFCAs是鱼体中的主要污染物。同位素鉴定水库鱼的营养级层次范围在2.11~4.10,且肉食性鱼类营养级大多高于杂食性鱼类,PFOS沿着食物链生物放大的过程与稳定碳氮同位素富集过程基本同步。此外,采用人均日摄入量法(average daily intake,ADI)评估得到PFOS与PFOA的风险值分别为1.16 ng·kg~(-1)·d~(-1)和0.31ng·kg~(-1)·d~(-1),整体低于人均每天可承受摄入量(tolerable daily intake,TDI),结果表明,北京水源地鱼体中PFOS和PFOA含量未达到对生态系统和人体健康具有风险的水平。     

A preliminary study of temporal differences in serum concentrations of perfluoroalkyl acids,among New York anglers,in the absence of known changes in manufacturing practices

Perfluorinated compounds have been manufactured in large quantities and used in myriad industrial processes and commercial applications. The aim of this preliminary study was to generate hypotheses with regard to differences in body burdens of perfluoroalkyl acids, among a sub-sample of participants from the New York State Angler Cohort Study, over a time interval during which no known substantial changes occurred in US manufacturing practices or commercial use. Paired serum specimens, collected from 15 subjects in 1993–1994 (time 1), and in 1995–1997 (time 2), with a minimum interval of 2.5 years, were assayed for PFDA, PFHpA, PFHxS, PFNA, PFOA, PFOS, PFOSA and PFUnDA using HPLC with ES-MS/MS. By subject, differences in concentrations between time 1 and time 2 were estimated, employing paired t-tests, correlations, and multivariable linear regression to accommodate heterogeneity in duration between specimens, and in time 1 concentrations. A statistically significant (P < 0.05) adjusted mean decrease of 0.16 ng mL^?1 (18.8%) between time 1 and 2 was detected for PFNA, and an adjusted mean increase of 0.54 ng mL^?1 (56.8%) was detected for PFOA. The results of this study may be indicative of short-term changes in human body burdens of PFNA and PFOA in association with local exposure sources.     

Perfluorinated compounds in a coastal industrial area of Tianjin,China

Perfluorinated compounds (PFC) in water, sediment, soil, and biota from the coastal industrial area of Tianjin, China, were measured to provide baseline information and to determine possible sources and potential risk to wildlife. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) was the predominant PFC with maximum concentrations of 10 ng/L in water, and 4.3, 9.4, and 240 ng/g dw in sediment, soil, and fish, respectively. Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) concentration in water ranged from 3.0 to 12 ng/L. Perfluoroundecanoate (PFUnA) and Perfluorododecanoate (PFDoA) were detected in solid matrices, respectively, at concentrations of 相似文献   

全氟化合物在阳离子表面活性剂改性碳纳米管上的吸附

采用两种阳离子表面活性剂,四丁基溴化铵(TBA)及聚乙烯亚胺(PEI)对碳纳米管进行改性,并研究了全氟辛酸(PFOA)、全氟辛烷磺酸盐(PFOS)、全氟己烷磺酸盐(PFHxS)在改性碳纳米管上的吸附行为.研究结果显示,除PFOS在TBA修饰的碳纳米管(TBA-MWCNTs)上的吸附等温线呈线性外,全氟化合物在原碳纳米管(Pri-MWCNTs)、TBA-MWCNTs及PEI修饰的碳纳米管(PEI-MWCNTs)上的吸附均为非线性.吸附等温线可以用Freundlich及Langmuir模型拟合.与Pri-MWCNTs相比,PEI-MWCNTs的零电荷点(pHzpc)增加了6.2个单位,全氟化合物的吸附系数Kd值增加2—3倍;而TBA-MWCNTs的pHzpc增加了1.0个单位,PFOS在高平衡浓度下的Kd值增加了两倍.随着溶液pH值的降低,全氟化合物在Pri-MWCNTs和PEI-MWCNTs上的吸附量有所增加,而在TBA-MWCNTs上的吸附受pH值的影响不大.这说明疏水作用及静电作用是全氟化合物在Pri-MWCNTs和PEI-MWCNTs上吸附的主要机制,而疏水作用则为TBA-MWCNTs上吸附的主要机制.与单溶质体系相比,PFOS与PFOA同时存在时二者在PEI-MWCNTs上吸附的Kd值均有所减小,且PFOA的减小程度大于PFOS.PFOS在TBA-MWCNTs上吸附的Kd值在高浓度下几乎不受PFOA的影响.     

台湾儿童血清全氟化合物与血脂关联的性别差异研究

目的:全氟辛烷磺酸(PFOS)和全氟辛酸(PFOA)是广泛应用于工业和生活领域的全氟化合物,在人体及环境介质中均可检出。近几年的流行病学研究表明儿童PFOS和PFOA的暴露水平与血脂水平具有相关性。本研究拟进一步研究血清全氟化合物水平与儿童血脂间关联的性别差异。方法:以台湾儿童为研究对象,分析血清中总胆固醇(TC)、高密度脂蛋白(HDL)、低密度脂蛋白(LDL)、甘油三脂(TG)等生化指标与PFOS和PFOA血清水平的相关性。结果:线性回归模型分析表明男生血清PFOS、PFOA水平与血脂水平具有显著相关性。当男生血清中ln-PFOS和ln-PFOA水平每增加1 ng·m L~(-1)时,TC含量分别增高0.51 mg·d L~(-1)(95%CI:0.30~0.72)和6.53 mg·d L~(-1)(95%CI:1.96~11.11),但在女生中则没有观察到血清PFOS和PFOA水平与TC的相关性。趋势分析结果显示,随着儿童血清中PFOS和PFOA水平的增加,男生和女生血脂的TC、LDL和TG含量呈增高趋势。结论:台湾儿童血清PFOS和PFOA水平与血脂水平存在正相关,且在男生中观察到的效应强于女生。     

Thermal defluorination behaviors of PFOS,PFOA and PFBS during regeneration of activated carbon by molten salt

• New method of mineralizing PFCs was proposed. • Activated carbon was regenerated while mineralizing PFCs. • Molten NaOH has good mineralization effect on PFOS and PFBS. Current study proposes a green regeneration method of activated carbon (AC) laden with Perfluorochemicals (PFCs) from the perspective of environmental safety and resource regeneration. The defluorination efficiencies of AC adsorbed perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS) using three molten sodium salts and one molten alkali were compared. Results showed that defluorination efficiencies of molten NaOH for the three PFCs were higher than the other three molten sodium salts at lower temperature. At 700°C, the defluorination efficiencies of PFOS and PFBS using molten NaOH reached to 84.2% and 79.2%, respectively, while the defluorination efficiency of PFOA was 35.3%. In addition, the temperature of molten salt, the holding time and the ratio of salt to carbon were directly proportional to the defluorination efficiency. The low defluorination efficiency of PFOA was due to the low thermal stability of PFOA, which made it difficult to be captured by molten salt.The weight loss range of PFOA was 75°C–125°C, which was much lower than PFOS and PFBS (400°C–500°C). From the perspective of gas production, fluorine-containing gases produced from molten NaOH-treated AC were significantly reduced, which means that environmental risks were significantly reduced. After molten NaOH treatment, the regenerated AC had higher adsorption capacity than that of pre-treated AC.     

全氟化合物同分异构体的环境行为及毒性效应研究进展

以全氟辛烷磺酸盐(PFOS)和全氟辛烷羧酸(PFOA)为代表的全氟化合物(PFASs)是一类新型持久性有机污染物,目前已经在全球自然环境、野生生物及人群中广泛检出,其环境与健康问题已引起人们的高度重视。传统的电氟化法生产工艺使PFASs产品存在碳链同分异构体。这些PFAS的同分异构体可能具有不同的环境行为和毒理效应。随着分析方法的逐渐成熟,目前,国外的学者已经在该研究领域进行了一些探索性的研究,并取得了一定的进展,而我国在该领域的研究相对较少。以PFOS和PFOA为例,在介绍了PFAS同分异构体的来源、命名和世界各地生产厂家的异构体组成等基本信息的基础上,还系统介绍了环境介质中PFAS同分异构体的分析方法、环境迁移转化差异及源分析研究;生物和人体的生物累积性及毒理学差异等;并对目前存在的问题进行了讨论,为今后PFAS同分异构体的环境问题研究提供相应的参考。     

Effect of co-existing organic compounds on adsorption of perfluorinated compounds onto carbon nanotubes

Co-existing organic compounds may affect the adsorption of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) and carbon nanotubes in aquatic environments. Adsorption of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctane acid (PFOA), perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS), and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFH_xS) on the pristine multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs-Pri), carboxyl functionalized MWCNTs (MWCTNs-COOH), and hydroxyl functionalized MWCNTs (MWCNTs-OH) in the presence of humic acid, 1-naphthol, phenol, and benzoic acid was studied. Adsorption kinetics of PFOS was described well by the pseudo-second-order model and the sorption equilibrium was almost reached within 24 h. The effect of co-existing organic compounds on PFOS adsorption followed the decreasing order of humic acid>1-naphthol>benzoic acid>phenol. Adsorbed amounts of PFOS decreased significantly in the presence of co-existing or preloaded humic acid, and both adsorption energy and effective adsorption sites on the three MWCNTs decreased, resulting in the decrease of PFOS adsorption. With increasing pH, PFOS removal by three MWCNTs decreased in the presence of humic acid and phenol. The adsorbed amounts of different PFCs on the MWCNTs increased in the order of PFBSxS相似文献   

Selective sorption of perfluorooctane sulfonate on molecularly imprinted polymer adsorbents

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), as a potential persistent organic pollutant, has been widely detected in water environments, and has become a great concern in recent years. PFOS is very stable and difficult to decompose using conventional techniques. Sorption may be an attractive method to remove it from water. In this study, the molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) adsorbents were prepared through the polymerization of 4-vinylpyridine under different preparation conditions in order to remove perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) from water. The MIP adsorbents using perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) as the template had good imprinting effects and could selectively remove PFOS from aqueous solution. The sorption behaviors including sorption kinetics, isotherms, and effect of pH, salt, and competitive anions were investigated. Experimental results showed that the sorption of PFOS on the MIP adsorbents was very fast, pH-dependent, and highly selective. The achieved fast sorption equilibrium within 1 h was attributed to the surface sorption on the fine adsorbents. The sorption isotherms showed that the sorption selectivity of PFOS on the MIP adsorbents decreased at high PFOS concentrations, which may be due to the double-layer sorption and the formation of PFOS micelles on the sorbent surface. The sorption of PFOS on the MIP adsorbents was mainly dominated by the electrostatic interaction between the protonated vinylpyridine on the adsorbent surface and the anionic PFOS. The prepared MIP adsorbents can potentially be applied in water and wastewater treatment for selective removal of PFOS.     

一次性餐盒材料中全氟辛酸和全氟辛烷磺酸沥出性研究

利用高效液相色谱-串联质谱检测方法对一次性餐盒材料中可沥出性全氟辛酸(PFOA)和全氟辛烷磺酸(PFPS)进行了研究.分别选取水、3%乙酸(W/W)、15%乙醇(V/V)和正己烷4种浸取液模拟餐盒材料在使用过程中可能接触到的水性、酸性、酒精类和油脂类条件.材料经4种溶液浸提后,浸取液用固相萃取净化和浓缩,目标分析物PFOA和PFOS采用内标法进行定量.研究表明,一次性餐盒材料在模拟条件下中有以PFOA为主的伞氟类化合物从材料中沥出,其中酸性环境对PFOA的浸取率最高(2296 ng·m~(-2)), 为其它3种方法的82.8倍;4种浸提条件下PFPS的沥出率都比较低,浓度仪为0.7 ng·m~(-2)-5.4 ng·m~(-2).     

Poly- and perfluorinated compounds in household consumer products

Several household consumer products were analyzed for their content of perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), and fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOH) by nanoflow ultra performance liquid chromatography – mass spectrometry and gas chromatography – mass spectrometry. Among the investigated products, which are applied as sprays, were impregnating agents, cleaning agents, lubricants, and conditioners. In 14 of the 26 products analyzed, at least one polyfluorinated compound (PFC) was detected in 14 samples. 8?:?2 FTOH was the dominating PFC with concentrations up to 149?µg?mL^?1. The maximum concentration of PFOA was 14.5?µg?mL^?1, whereas PFOS was not detected in any sample. Investigated PFCs were mostly found in impregnating agents and lubricants, but were not detected in cleaning agents and conditioners. In FTOH-containing impregnating agents, similar ratios between 6?:?2 FTOH, 8?:?2 FTOH, and 10?:?2 FTOH were found. FTOH proportions in PFC-containing lubricants were similar as well. Total human exposure to PFC from consumer product aerosols for three different scenarios was estimated to be between 42.8 and 464?ng?kg^?1?per day.     

云南省会泽县农田土壤中全氟化合物污染特征研究

为探究云南省会泽县农田土壤中全氟化合物(perfluorinated compounds,PFCs)的污染特征及其潜在来源,2015年6月采集云南省会泽县农田土壤42份,利用高效液相色谱-串联质谱仪(HPLC-MS/MS)分析了11种PFCs的含量水平。结果表明,云南省会泽县农田土壤中全氟己酸(perfluorohexanoic acid,PFHx A)、全氟庚酸(perfluoroheptanoic acid,PFHp A)和全氟己烷磺酸(perfluorohexane sulfonate,PFHx S)均未检出,其余8种PFCs(ΣPFCs)的平均含量水平为0.392 ng·g-1,含量范围为0.298~0.998ng·g-1。全氟辛酸(perfluorooctanoic acid,PFOA)和全氟辛烷磺酸(perfluorooctane sulfonate,PFOS)是最主要的PFCs,相对百分含量范围为45.93%~81.86%,其平均含量水平分别为0.116 ng·g-1和0.120 ng·g-1。与国内其他地区土壤中PFCs的含量水平相比,云南省会泽县农田土壤中PFCs含量水平低于上海,与广州、深圳、东莞、安徽、中国东部农村等地区土壤中PFCs的含量相当。主成分分析结果表明,以全氟癸酸(perfluorodecanoic acid,PFDA)、全氟辛烷磺酸(PFOS)和全氟十三酸(perfluorotridecanoic acid,PFTr DA)为主要标志物的2个主成分可以解释云南省会泽县农田土壤中73%的ΣPFCs。工业活动、大气沉降及长距离传输为云南省会泽县农田土壤中PFCs的主要来源。     

Treatment technologies for aqueous perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA)

Fluorochemicals (FCs) are oxidatively recalcitrant, environmentally persistent, and resistant to most conventional treatment technologies. FCs have unique physiochemical properties derived from fluorine which is the most electronegative element. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) have been detected globally in the hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Reducing treatment technologies such as reverses osmosis, nano-filtration and activated carbon can remove FCs from water. However, incineration of the concentrated waste is required for complete FC destruction. Recently, a number of alternative technologies for FC decomposition have been reported. The FC degradation technologies span a wide range of chemical processes including direct photolysis, photocatalytic oxidation, photochemical oxidation, photochemical reduction, thermally-induced reduction, and sonochemical pyrolysis. This paper reviews these FC degradation technologies in terms of kinetics, mechanism, energetic cost, and applicability. The optimal PFOS/PFOA treatment method is strongly dependent upon the FC concentration, background organic and metal concentration, and available degradation time.     

Perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (PFASs) in surface and tap water around Lake Taihu in China

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are ubiquitously distributed in the environment mainly as perfluoro-carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (PFASs). In this paper, six PFCAs and two PFASs were quantified in surface and tap water samples from 12 sites around Lake Taihu near Shanghai City in East China. Predominant PFCs were perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), of which the concentration ranges were 6.8–206 and 1.2–45 ng·L⁻¹, the geometric means were 35.3 and 9.4 ng·L⁻¹, and the median (quartile range) values were 31.4 (34.4) and 10.4 (10.7) ng·L⁻¹, respectively. Other PFCs were also detected but in much lower concentrations than PFOA. The sources of the PFCs were expected to be direct industrial discharges in the Lake Taihu area, and this area was also a possible source of PFCs contaminations in Shanghai district in the downstream. PFCs distributions were found different in the upstream, downstream and north part of Lake Taihu. Occurrences of PFCs in the tap water in Lake Taihu area indicated their exposure to the local people. A brief estimation of the environmental risks by PFCs implied no acute or immediate risks from PFCs to local human health, but chronic risks from PFOA in the tap water should be considered in the downstream regions.