肺炎链球菌耐药基因ermB、mefA、tetM与转座子整合酶基因intTn的检测

目的 研究耐药基因ermB、mefA、tetM与转座子整合酶基因intTn在携带肺炎链球菌的北京儿童中分布特点。方法对185株呼吸道感染患儿鼻咽部分离的肺炎链球菌进行以下检测：E-test、琼脂稀释或纸片扩散法测定对大环内酯类、四环素、β-内酰胺类及头孢类等15种抗生素的药物敏感性。PCR检测大环内酯类耐药基因ermB和mef/A，四环素耐药基因tetM以及转座子Tn1545的整合酶基因intTn。结果185株肺炎链球菌的药敏结果显示，对红霉素、克林霉素、四环素和复方磺胺甲基异嗯唑的耐药率较高，分别为78．9％、76．2％、86．0％和78．7％，对阿莫西林，克拉维酸、头孢克洛、头孢曲松和头孢呋辛耐药率较低，分别为2．2％、15．5％、2．8％和14．1％。所有红霉素耐药株均检出ermB和／或mefA，其中79．5％为ermB阳性，17．8％为ermB和mefA同时阳性，2．7％为mefA阳性。tetM基因在分离株中的阳性率是87％，四环素耐药组的tetM基因携带率是96．9％，高于敏感组（26．9％）。四环素耐药株的红霉素耐药率（90．0％）亦高于敏感株组（11．5％）。87．6％的肺炎链球菌存在intTn基因，intTn基因阳性组的红霉素、四环素、氯霉素、复方磺胺甲基异嗯唑和环丙沙星的耐药率较intTn基因阴性组高。分离株最常见的基因组合是intTn＋terM＋ermB，占58．4％。结论北京地区呼吸道感染儿童鼻咽部肺炎链球菌耐大环内酯类抗生素的主要原因是ermB编码的23S rRNA甲基化酶致靶位改变。tetM基因编码蛋白质的核糖体保护作用，是肺炎链球菌四环素耐药的重要机制。接合性转座子Tn1545的存在与菌株的红霉素和四环素耐药关系密切，可能是肺炎链球菌多重耐药的重要机制之一。     

氟喹诺酮类药物对肺炎克雷伯杆菌体外防耐药突变浓度的研究

目的:测定氟喹诺酮类药物(FQNs)对肺炎克雷伯杆菌的防耐药突变浓度(MPC),比较其防耐药突变能力,了解细菌对FQNs的耐药性。方法:肉汤法富集1010CFU.ml-1的菌液接种于不同浓度环丙沙星及加替沙星琼脂平皿上,采用琼脂二倍稀释法测定环丙沙星、加替沙星对临床分离肺炎克雷伯杆菌、ATCC700603及耐药突变体的最低抑菌浓度(MIC)、防耐药突变浓度(MPC)。结果:环丙沙星、加替沙星对肺炎克雷伯杆菌ATCC700603的MPC分别为8与1.6mg/mL,细菌耐药选择指数(MPC/MIC)分别为16与4mg/mL。2种氟喹诺酮类药物的第一步耐药突变体对筛选药物的MIC较ATCC700603提高4～24倍,第二步突变体又较第一步突变体高2～6倍。结论:加替沙星限制肺炎克雷伯杆菌耐药突变株选择的能力强于环丙沙星,肺炎克雷伯杆菌对FQNs耐药是累积性的。     

氟喹诺酮体外诱导耐药肺炎克雷伯菌膜孔蛋白表达的变化

目的 探讨氟喹诺酮体外诱导耐药肺炎克雷伯菌(KPn)膜孔蛋白表达变化.方法 取2008年9月至2009年6月本院临床分离对环丙沙星敏感的KPn 20株,分为对照组和实验组,每组10株.对照组直接涂布于含环丙沙星128 mg/L的平板,观察其对环丙沙星的敏感性.实验组应用不同浓度梯度环丙沙星逐级诱导成为高度耐药株,观察应用环丙沙星前后KPn敏感株和耐药株膜孔蛋白表达的差异.结果 对照组10株KPn直接涂布于含环丙沙星128 mg/L的平板培养后无一存活.3对KPn菌株R9、S9、R4、S4、R3、S3环丙沙星诱导前后膜孔蛋白相对表达量分别是3.86±0.11、6.44±0.26、5.46±0.18、9.58±0.34、1.75±0.06和9.78±0.36,诱导耐药的KPn较相应敏感株膜孔蛋白表达明显减少(均P＜0.05).结论 氟喹诺酮体外诱导耐药KPn膜孔蛋白表达减少,可能通过细菌外膜通透性改变在KPn诱导耐药中起重要作用.     

养殖动物及人分离大肠埃希菌染色体和质粒介导氟喹诺酮耐药机制的研究

目的 探讨从养殖动物及周围人群分离的大肠埃希菌染色体和质粒介导氟喹诺酮耐药机制. 方法 纸片扩散法和肉汤稀释法检测氟喹诺酮抗菌药物及其他抗生素的耐药性表型.PCR扩增DNA解旋酶(gyrA和gyrB)和拓扑异构酶IV(parC和parE)基因的喹诺酮耐药决定区、导致喹诺酮类抗生素耐药质粒的部分基因(qnr)以及氨基糖苷类抗生素乙酰转移酶Ib亚型cr变异体编码基因[aac(6')-I b-or],PCR产物进行直接测序.接合试验确定aac(6')-I b-cr酶的可转移性以及在氟喹诺酮耐药中的作用. 结果 鸡来源的大肠埃希菌对常用抗生素的耐药率明显高于猪和周围人群来源菌株.在PCR检测的64株大肠埃希菌中,环丙沙星MIC值大于1μg/ml以上的53株均存在gyrA和/或/parC基因上出现两个位点突变和氨基酸替代,环丙沙星的MIC>16μg/ml的菌株parE基因也发生了点突变及相应氨基酸替代.未发现gyrB亚单位有氨基酸替代.鸡来源28株菌和猪来源9株菌中分别有7株(25.O%)和1株(11.1%)携带有aac(6')-I b-cr基因;aac(6')-I b-cr基因可使环丙沙星、诺氟沙星乙酰化而降低药物抗菌活性. 结论 gyrA、parC和parE碱基突变导致氨基酸置换的数量与菌株对氟喹诺酮类耐药水平呈正相关,携带aac(6')-I b-cr基因的质粒在细菌氟喹诺酮耐药上也具有一定作用.     

桂西地区幽门螺杆菌对克拉霉素的耐药性分析

目的 分析桂西地区幽门螺杆菌(Helicobacter pylori,HP)菌株对克拉霉素的耐药情况,并探讨Hp对克拉霉素耐药与23S rRNA基因点突变的关系.方法 分离培养Hp,纸片扩散法进行药敏实验,PCR方法扩增23S rRNA基因,用聚合酶链反应.限制性片段长度多态性(PCR-RFLP)检测克拉霉素耐药菌株的点突变,同时进行基因测序确定突变位点.结果 桂西地区Hp菌株对克拉霉素耐药率为22.2%(28/126);PCR-RFLP检测10株对克拉霉素耐药的Hp,均存在23S rRNA基因的A2143G、A2144G点突变,10株敏感菌株均无23S rRNA的点突变,基因测序显示耐药菌株有A2143G、A2144G突变,其他位置未发现突变.结论 桂西地区Hp菌株对克拉霉素耐药率(22.2%)略高于北京、上海等地区;Hp的23S rRNA基因A2143G、A2144G点突变与克拉霉素的耐药相关.     

喹诺酮类药物对耐药肺炎克雷伯杆菌的体外抗菌活性分析

目的:了解耐喹诺酮类肺炎克雷伯杆菌的体外抗菌活性及CCCP对喹诺酮类药物体外抗菌活性的影响。方法:从99株肺炎克雷伯杆菌临床分离株中选取对环丙沙星耐药(M IC≥4μg/m l)菌株14株。采用琼脂二倍稀释法测定抗菌药的最低抑菌浓度(M IC),同时测CCCP对喹诺酮类药物M IC的影响。结果:14株肺炎克雷伯杆菌对5种喹诺酮类药物无一株敏感,且表现出较高水平的耐药。对其它抗生素的耐药率由高到低依次是氨苄西林、哌拉西林、氯霉素、庆大霉素、氨曲南、阿米卡星、头孢噻肟和头孢吡肟。亚胺培南未发现有耐药株。喹诺酮类药物与CCCP合用后,在部分菌中的M IC中出现了明显的降低。结论:耐喹诺酮类肺炎克雷伯杆菌对喹诺酮类呈交叉耐药,且呈较高水平耐药;CCCP可以明显提高部分喹诺酮类药物对肺炎克雷伯杆菌的体外抗菌活性;亚胺培南、第三代头孢菌素、氨曲南和阿米卡星对耐喹诺酮肺炎克雷伯杆菌仍有一定作用。     

国产司帕沙星体内外抗菌作用

采用琼脂二倍稀释法测定了国产司帕沙星(SPFLX)对537株临床分离革兰氏阳性、阴性需氧菌和厌氧菌的体外抗菌活力,并与同类产品中的环丙沙星、氧氟沙星、诺氟沙星进行比较。结果表明SPFLX具有广谱高效的体外抗菌作用,该品对革兰氏阳性球菌具有很强抑菌活力,对金黄色葡萄球菌(包括喹诺酮类耐药株及甲氧西林耐药株MRSA)具较强的抑菌活力,MIC范围在<0.004～16mg/L,表葡菌、化脓性链球菌、粪链球菌、肺炎链球菌的MIC在0.015～8mg/L。SPFLX对革兰氏阴性细菌中的大肠杆菌、克氏肺炎杆菌亦具有强抑菌作用,MIC_(50)在0.03～0.06mg/L,对变形杆菌属、粘质沙雷氏菌的MIC_(50)在0.125～0.5mg/L,对绿脓杆菌的MIC_(50)、     

大肠埃希菌尿液分离株中检出gyrA基因新变异株

目的 调查大肠埃希菌尿液分离株中喹诺酮类耐药相关基因的存在与变化状况.方法 收集宁波市第一医院2008年10月到2009年3月患者尿液标本中分离的大肠埃希菌共28株,采用聚合酶链反应(PCR)及序列分析的方法分析1种染色体介导的喹诺酮类耐药相关基因(gyrA基因)和5种质粒介导的喹诺酮类耐药相关基因[qnrA、qnrB、qnrS、aac(6＇)-Ⅰb、qepA].结果 28株大肠埃希菌检测到1株aac(6＇)-Ⅰb-Cr基因阳性株(经测序比对证实),qnrA、qnrB、qnrS、qepA基因均未检出.gyrA基因83位密码子28株菌都有突变(100.0%),其突变方式为TCG-83→HTG,导致氨基酸从丝氨酸(S)-83→亮氨酸(L);87位密码子22株菌(78.6%)有突变,可分为两种突变方式:21株(75.0%)突变方式为GAC-87→AAC,导致氨基酸从天冬氨酸(D)-87→天冬酰胺(N);5号株gyrA基因(3.6%)为新亚型,其突变方式为GAC-87→TAC,导致氨基酸从天冬氨酸(D)-87→脯氨酸(Y),另6株菌87位密码子无突变.结论 本组大肠埃希菌gyrA基因突变率为100.0%,是喹诺酮类耐药的主要原因.其他耐药相关基因阳性率很低.     

解脲脲原体Parvo和T960生物群msr基因的检测

目的 检测解脲脲原体(Uu)是否携带介导对红霉素耐药的msr基因,并分析其在Uu两生物群间分布的差异.方法 采用微量肉汤稀释法测定72株Uu临床株对红霉素的体外耐性,PCR检测msrA、msrB、msrG、msrD基因,并对Uu进行PCR分群.结果 72株Uu的最低抑菌浓度(MIC)范围是≤0.125 μg/ml≥128 μg/ml,MIC_(50)为32 μg/ml,MIC_(90)≥128μg/ml.分群结果示Parvo生物群51株,占70.83%,T960生物群21株,占29.17%.共检测到msrD基因的Uu24株,msrB基因12株,msrA基因1株,没有发现Uu菌株携带msrC基因.5株Uu同时检测到msrB和msrD基因,1株Uu同时检测到msrA、msrB和msrD基因.以MIC≥8μg/ml为耐药判定值时,两生物群对红霉素耐药性无显著差异,msrB基因主要分布在T960生物群.结论 Uu临床菌株携带对大环内酯类耐药的msr基因(包括msrA、msrB、msrP),msrB基因主要分布在T960生物群.     

80株解脲脲原体的药敏及耐药机制分析

目的　分析解脲脲原体(Ureaplasmaurealyticm ,Uu)的耐药情况,并探讨Uu可能的耐药机制。方法　对80株临床上分离到的Uu进行了药敏分析、PCR生物分群、tetM基因的检测和PCR扩增喹诺酮类药物耐药区(QRDR ,gyrA、gyrB、parC及parE)基因并分析其核苷酸序列。结果　80株临床分离的Uu有6 6份为生物1群,占82 .5 % ;对所测的9种药物全敏感的Uu比例仅为10 % (8 80 ) ;7株耐四环素Uu中有3株出现了tetM基因阳性条带;对6株临床分离Uu的QRDR(gyrA、gyrB、parC及parE)进行了突变分析,未发现环丙沙星、氧氟沙星均敏感Uu株有gyrA、gyrB、parC及parE突变,但耐喹诺酮Uu株有gyrA、parC和parE基因的点突变,并导致其编码的氨基酸改变。在这些QRDR的改变中,gyrA 137C→A和parC基因10 0C→T的误义突变导致其编码的相应氨基酸的改变,但parC基因的2 2 5G→A和parE基因4 0G→A ,4 1T→C的误义突变导致其编码的相应氨基酸的改变。对Uu耐药率及生物群分型结果进行分析发现,虽然两群Uu的耐药率不完全一样,但差异无统计学意义(P均>0 .0 5 )。结论　UuQRDR的改变是导致耐喹诺酮类药物的原因,单独parE基因突变引起其酶蛋白的氨基酸改变也可导致Uu耐喹诺酮类药物。     

Induction of ribosome methylation in MLS-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae by macrolides and ketolides

One major mechanism for resistance to macrolide antibiotics in Streptococcus pneumoniae is MLS (macrolide, lincosamide, and streptogramin B) resistance, manifested when the 23S rRNA is methylated by the product of an erm gene. This modification results in the decreased binding of all known macrolide, lincosamide, and streptogramin B antibiotics to the ribosome. More than 30 ermAM-containing clinical isolates of S. pneumoniae were examined in our lab and showed high-level resistance (MIC > or =128 microg/ml) to erythromycin, azithromycin, tylosin, clindamycin, and ketolide (macrolides that lack the cladinose sugar) TE-802. We found that the new generation of ketolides A965 and A088 displayed variable activity against the same group of resistant S. pneumoniae strains. To understand the basis of variability of the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of A965 and A088, we examined the effects of a series of macrolides and ketolides on the level of 23S rRNA methylation in five ermAM-containing resistant S. pneumoniae isolates. We show here that the basal levels of ribosomal methylation vary from strain to strain. The level of rRNA methylation can be strongly induced by erythromycin, azithromycin, and TE-802, resulting in high-level of resistance to these compounds. Ketolide A965 and A088, however, are weak inducers at sub-MIC drug concentrations, therefore showing variable activities in strains with differential methylation levels.     

Distribution of macrolide resistance genes erm(B) and mef(A) among 160 penicillin-intermediate clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated in southern France

Two prevalent mechanisms of macrolide resistance are currently described in pneumococci: production of rRNA methylase that modify 23S ribosomal RNA resulting in MLSB phenotype, and an active efflux system resulting in M-phenotype. These two mechanisms are mediated by erm(B) and mef(A) genes respectively. Several studies reported a predominance of mef(A) gene in United-States and Canada. In European countries, erm(B) determinant is prevalent and mef(A)-mediated erythromycin resistance was recently reported in about 10% of strains in Belgium and Italy. In order to evaluate implication of mef(A) gene in pneumococci erythromycin resistance, 160 clinical isolates of S. pneumoniae with low-level of penicillin resistance and resistance to macrolides recovered between April 1999 and April 2000 were collected. These isolates were tested for their macrolide susceptibility by disc diffusion method, 155 showed the MLSB phenotype and 5 the M phenotype. Genotypic analysis was performed by erm(B) and mef(A) specific-mediated PCR: erm(B) gene was detected in 154 isolates, mef(A) gene in 5 isolates, and both genes in one strain. The phenotype seems to be well correlated to the genotyping result except for strain harboring both resistance determinants. Molecular typing of isolates harboring mef(A) gene performed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) after restriction by Smal shows these strains to be epidemiologically unrelated. Our results show the predominance of the erm(B) gene in erythromycin resistant S. pneumoniae isolates. mef(A)-mediated resistance is effective in Southern France (3.7%) but this rate is the lowest published from European countries.     

Characterization of In Vivo acquired resistance of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae to macrolides and lincosamides

Macrolides and related antibiotics are used to control mycoplasma infections in the pig industry worldwide. Some porcine mycoplasmas, however, survive these treatments by acquiring resistance. The mechanism of acquired resistance to macrolides and lincosamides was studied in more detail for Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae by comparing both the phenotype and genotype of a resistant field isolate to five susceptible isolates. The MICs were significantly higher for the resistant strain for all antibiotics tested. The MICs for the 16-membered macrolide tylosin ranged from 8 to 16 microg for the resistant strain and from 0.03 to 0.125 microg/ml for the five susceptible strains. The MICs for the 15-membered macrolides and lincosamides were higher than 64 microg/ml for the resistant strain while only 0.06 to 0.5 microg/ml for the susceptible strains. Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae strains are intrinsically resistant to the 14-membered macrolides due to a G 2057 A transition (E. coli numbering) in their 23S rDNA. Therefore, high MICs were observed for all strains, although the MICs for the resistant strain were clearly increased. An additional, acquired A 2058 G point mutation was found in the 23S rRNA gene of the resistant strain. No differences linked to resistance were found in the ribosomal proteins L4 and L22. The present study showed that 23S rRNA mutations resulting in resistance to macrolides and lincosamides as described in other Mycoplasma spp. also occur under field conditions in M. hyopneumoniae.     

Increased prevalence of erythromycin resistance in streptococci: substantial upsurge in erythromycin-resistant M phenotype in Streptococcus pyogenes (1979-1998) but not in Streptococcus pneumoniae (1985-1999) in Taiwan

A total of 394 nonduplicate isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes collected from 1979 to 1998 and 267 nonduplicate isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae collected from October, 1998, to May, 1999, in Taiwan were evaluated. Among the 220 erythromycin-resistant (MIC, > or =1 microg/ml) S. pyogenes isolates, 35% had an M phenotype and 65% had an ML phenotype (inducible resistance [iML], 0.5%, and constitutive resistance [cML], 64.5%). Among the 243 erythromycin-resistant S. pneumoniae isolates, the majority (65.4%) had an ML phenotype (iML, 0.4%, and cML, 65%) and 34.6% had an M phenotype. A substantial upsurge in the incidence of M-phenotype erythromycin-resistant isolates was found with time for S. pyogenes (0% in 1979-1984 and 100% in 1997-1998), and an increasing incidence of M-phenotype among erythromycin-resistant S. pneumoniae was also noted (<20% before 1994 and 45.4% in 1999). All S. pyogenes and all but four S. pneumoniae isolates exhibiting a cML or iML phenotype had harbored the ermAM gene. The presence of the mefA gene was demonstrated in all isolates of S. pyogenes and the mefE gene in all but four S. pneumoniae isolates exhibiting the M phenotype. Due to the increasing susceptibility of S. pyogenes and S. pneumoniae isolates to clindamycin, susceptibility tests of these two organisms to macrolides and clindamycin should be performed simultaneously in the clinical microbiology laboratory, particularly in areas with high rates of macrolide resistance.     

Macrolide and fluoroquinolone resistance in Mycoplasma genitalium in two Swedish counties, 2011–2015

Mycoplasma genitalium, causing non‐gonococcal non‐chlamydial urethritis and associated with cervicitis, has developed antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to both the macrolide azithromycin (first‐line treatment) and the fluoroquinolone moxifloxacin (second‐line treatment). Our aim was to estimate the prevalence of resistance, based on genetic AMR determinants, to these antimicrobials in the M. genitalium population in two Swedish counties, Örebro and Halland, 2011–2015. In total, 672 M. genitalium positive urogenital samples were sequenced for 23S rRNA and parC gene mutations associated with macrolide and fluoroquinolone resistance, respectively. Of the samples, 18.6% and 3.2% in Örebro and 15.2% and 2.7% in Halland contained mutations associated with macrolide and fluoroquinolone resistance, respectively. The predominating resistance‐associated mutations in the 23S rRNA gene was A2059G (n = 39) in Örebro and A2058G (n = 13) and A2059G (n = 13) in Halland. The most prevalent possible resistance‐associated ParC amino acid alterations were S83I (n = 4) in Örebro and S83N (n = 2) in Halland. Resistance‐associated mutations to both macrolides and fluoroquinolones were found in 0.7% of samples. Our findings emphasize the need for routine AMR testing, at a minimum for macrolide resistance, of all M. genitalium‐positive samples and regular national and international surveillance of AMR in M. genitalium, to ensure effective patient management and rational antimicrobial use.     

Genotyping of Mycoplasma pneumoniae clinical isolates reveals eight P1 subtypes within two genomic groups

Three methods for genotyping of Mycoplasma pneumoniae clinical isolates were applied to 2 reference strains and 21 clinical isolates. By a modified restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of PCR products of the M. pneumoniae cytadhesin P1 gene, 5 subtypes were discriminated among 13 P1 type 1 strains and 3 subtypes were discriminated among 8 P1 type 2 strains. Sequence analysis of the 16S-23S rRNA gene spacer region and part of the 23S rRNA gene revealed one nucleotide difference in the intergenic spacer region in 3 of the 21 isolates. In the 23S rRNA gene sequence of the 8 P1 type 2 strains an extra adenosine was present, but it was absent from the 13 P1 type 1 strains. On the basis of M. pneumoniae genome sequence data, primers were designed to amplify large interrepeat fragments by long PCR, and these fragments were subsequently analyzed by RFLP analysis. Only two types, long PCR types 1 and 2, could be discriminated among the M. pneumoniae isolates. All P1 type 1 strains were assigned to long PCR type 1, and all P1 type 2 strains were assigned to long PCR type 2. These data obtained by three independent typing methods thus confirm the existence of two distinct M. pneumoniae genomic groups but expand the possibility of strain typing on the basis of variations within their P1 genes.     

Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of Brachyspira intermedia isolates from European layers

A broth microdilution method was used to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility of 20 Brachyspira intermedia isolates obtained from different layer flocks in Belgium and The Netherlands between 2008 and 2010. The antimicrobial agents used were tylosin, tilmicosin, tiamulin, valnemulin, doxycycline, and lincomycin. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) distribution patterns of tylosin, tilmicosin, lincomycin, and doxycycline were bimodal, demonstrating acquired resistance against doxycycline in three strains, against the macrolides in two strains, and against lincomycin in one strain. The MICs of tiamulin and valnemulin showed a monomodal distribution, but with tailing toward the higher MIC values, possibly suggesting low-level acquired resistance in six isolates. Sequencing revealed a G1058C mutation in the 16S rRNA gene in all doxycycline-resistant strains. The strain resistant to tylosin, tilmicosin, and lincomycin had an A2058T mutation in the 23S rRNA gene.     

Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of macrolide resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in Tunisia

One hundred of non duplicate Streptococcus pneumoniae resistant to erythromycin collected from three teaching hospitals in Tunisia from January 1998 to December 2004 were investigated to evaluate determine their resistance level to different macrolides and the mechanisms involved. Most erythromycin resistant S. pneumoniae were isolated from respiratory tract (34%). Eighty-three percent showed constitutive MLS(B) phenotype with high MICs of macrolides and lincosamides (MIC90 >256 microg/ml), 12% M phenotype with moderately increased MICs of macrolides (MIC90: 12 microg/ml) and low MICs of lincosamides (MIC90=0.75 microg/ml) and 5% inducible MLS(B) with high MICs of macrolides (MIC90 >256 microg/ml) and moderately increased MICs of lincosamides (MIC90=8 microg/ml). All strains were susceptible to quinupristun-dafopristin association and linezolid (MIC90=1 microg/ml). Strains belonging to MLS(B) phenotype were PCR positive for the erm B gene (88%). Twelve percent categorized as M phenotype carried the mef A gene. The rates of associated resistance were 68% to penicillin G, 53% to tetracyclines, 61% to cotrimoxazole, 21% to chloramphenicol and 13% to ciprofloxacin. MLS(B) constitutive phenotype conferring cross resistance to macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramins B with high level of resistance was the most prevalent. Thus, quinupristin-dalfopristin association and linezolid remain the most active molecules.     

Differentiation of resistance phenotypes among erythromycin-resistant streptococci

Although macrolide antibiotics have proved to be a valuable alternative to beta-lactam antibiotics in the treatment of respiratory tract infections, resistance to these agents is now becoming established in streptococci, especially among Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates. Of particular concern is the emergence of cross-resistance to 14-, 15- and 16-membered macrolides, licosamides and group B streptogramins (MLSb phenotype). MLS resistance can be expressed either constitutively (cMLS phenotype) or inducibly (iMLS phenotype). MLS resistance is mediated by two classes of methylase genes--the conventional erm(B) and recently described erm(A) determinants. A new macrolide efflux mechanism has been described for streptococci, in which it is associated with a new resistance pattern (M phenotype) characterized by resistance to 14- and 15-membered macrolides, and susceptibility to 16-membered macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramin B. The recognition of the prevalence of M phenotype in streptococci has implications for sensitivity testing and may have an impact on the choice of antibiotic therapy in clinical practice. While M resistance is similar in S. pyogenes and S. pneumoniae being mediated by mef(A) and mef(E), respectively, MLS resistance in both species appears to be genotypically and phenotypically more varied. Differentiation of M and MLS phenotypes of erythromycin-resistant strains can be performed using the erythromycin-clindamycin double-disc method (ECDD). Distinguishing not only M resistance but also constitutively or inducibly MLS phenotype by ECDD in S. pyogenes is easily and reliably achieved. Inducible MLS phenotype S. pyogenes strain is genotypically and phenotypically heterogeneous and is further subdivided into three recently described subtypes, iMLS-A, iMLS-B and iMLS-C, by a triple-disk test with erythromycin plus clindamycin and josamycin. While distinguishing M from MLS resistance in S. pneumoniae by ECDD test is easily and reliably achieved, the differentiation between constitutive and inducible MLS resistance is by far more uncertain. The meaning of inducible MLS resistance appears to be different in S. pneumoniae from that in S. pyogenes. In order to easily differentiate, within erythromycin-resistant pneumococci, not only the strains of the M phenotype from those with MLS resistance but also among the latter, cMLS from iMcLS strains, a triple-disk test has been set up by adding a rokitamycin disk to the conventional