Staff attributions towards men with intellectual disability who have a history of sexual offending and challenging behaviour

Background   Staff working within secure services for people with intellectual disabilities (ID) are likely to work with sexual offenders, but very little attention has been paid to how they think about this sexual offending behaviour.
Method   Forty-eight staff working within secure services for people with ID were recruited and completed the Attribution Style Questionnaire in relation to the sexual offending behaviour and challenging behaviour of men with mild ID. Attributions towards challenging behaviour and sexual offending were compared and relationships between level of ID and seriousness of the sexual offence were explored.
Results   The results indicated that staff attributed sexual offending as more external to the staff group than they did for challenging behaviour. Sexual offending behaviour was also seen as more stable, and less controllable by people with ID than was challenging behaviour. Sexual offending was also attributed as more uncontrollable by the staff group than challenging behaviour. There was a significant negative correlation between general intellectual functioning and several attributional dimensions regarding sexual offending, but not challenging behaviour. Sexual offending that was coded as more serious was attributed as universal and uncontrollable by the staff group.
Conclusions   The differences between staff attributions regarding challenging behaviour and sexual offending potentially relate to the decision-making processes involved in deciding whether or not to involve criminal justice agencies when someone with ID commits a sexual offence. Further research within this area is warranted.     

A revised sexual knowledge assessment tool for people with intellectual disabilities: is sexual knowledge related to sexual offending behaviour?

Background The aim of the current study was to update an existing short measure of sexual knowledge and generate some initial reliability and normative data. Comparisons of sexual knowledge across several groups were made to examine whether or not a lack of sexual knowledge is related to sexual offending. Methods The Bender Sexual Knowledge Questionnaire (BSKQ) was revised, and a new questionnaire, the General Sexual Knowledge Questionnaire (GSKQ), was created and administered to four groups of participants: (1) sex offenders with an intellectual disability (ID) and a history of engagement in treatment (n = 12); (2) sex offenders with an ID and no history of treatment (n = 13); (3) non‐offenders with an ID (n = 28); and (4) non‐offenders without an ID (n = 10). Between‐group comparisons were made; internal consistency, split‐half reliability and correlations were examined. Results The internal consistency and the split‐half reliability of the entire questionnaire was good. Non‐offenders without an ID scored significantly higher than non‐offenders with an ID on all sections of the GSKQ. Sex offenders who had undergone treatment scored significantly higher than non‐offenders with an ID on several sections of this questionnaire. Conclusions The initial findings from this study suggest that the psychometric properties of the GSKQ are promising. The assumption that lower sexual knowledge may be related to the risk of committing a sexual offence by people with IDs is possibly erroneous, and further research is required to clarify this possibility.     

Development and preliminary evaluation of a questionnaire on cognitions related to sex offending for use with individuals who have mild intellectual disabilities

Background A number of authors note that distorted cognitions may play a significant role in sex offending behaviour in both the people with intellectual disability (ID) and general populations. However, no scales have been specifically developed for use with individuals with ID. To date, there is no valid, reliable, self‐report questionnaire that assesses cognitive factors in these individuals. This paper aims to develop a valid, reliable self‐report questionnaire to assess antisocial attitudes consistent with sex offending behaviour in individuals who have mild ID. Methods Seventeen male individuals with ID who had sexually offended were compared with two non‐sex offender groups: 19 males with and 36 males without ID. The Questionnaire on Attitudes Consistent with Sex Offending (QACSO) measure was used to establish sexual attitudes in the three groups. The reliability and validity of the QACSO was examined. Results The groups were compared and results demonstrated that the QACSO is a promising tool in terms of providing an internally consistent, reliable and valid indicator of cognitive distortions/attitudes held by sex offenders with ID. Conclusions The limitations, suggestions for modification, potential uses of the questionnaire and directions for further research are proposed.     

A classification of risk factors in serious juvenile offenders and the relation between patterns of risk factors and recidivism

Background There has been a lot of research on risk factors for recidivism among juvenile offenders, in general, and on individual risk factors, but less focus on subgroups of serious juvenile offenders and prediction of recidivism within these. Objective To find an optimal classification of risk items and to test the predictive value of the resultant factors with respect to severity of recidivism among serious juvenile offenders. Method Seventy static and dynamic risk factors in 1154 juvenile offenders were registered with the Juvenile Forensic Profile. Recidivism data were collected on 728 of these offenders with a time at risk of at least 2 years. After factor analysis, independent sample t‐tests were used to indicate differences between recidivists and non‐recidivists. Logistic multiple linear regression analyses were used to test the potential predictive value of the factors for violent or serious recidivism. Results A nine‐factor solution best accounted for the data. The factors were: antisocial behaviour during treatment, sexual problems, family problems, axis‐1 psychopathology, offence characteristics, conscience and empathy, intellectual and social capacities, social network, and substance abuse. Regression analysis showed that the factors antisocial behaviour during treatment, family problems and axis‐1 psychopathology were associated with seriousness of recidivism. Conclusions and implications for practice The significance of family problems and antisocial behaviour during treatments suggest that specific attention to these factors may be important in reducing recidivism. The fact that antisocial behaviour during treatment consists mainly of dynamic risk factors is hopeful as these can be influenced by treatment. Consideration of young offenders by subgroup rather than as a homogenous population is likely to yield the best information about risk of serious re‐offending and the management of that risk. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Comparison of Sex Offenders and Other Types of Offenders Referred to Intellectual Disability Forensic Services

This study compared 131 sex offenders with ID and 346 other types of offenders with ID using case file records. All the females in the study were non sexual offenders. Significantly more sexual offenders were referred from court and criminal justice services while significantly fewer were referred from secondary healthcare. A higher percentage of sex offenders had some form of legal status at time of referral. Greater proportions of non sexual offenders were referred for aggression, damage to property, substance abuse and fire setting while only the sex offenders had an index sex offence. For previous offending, the non sexual offenders had higher rates of aggression, cruelty and neglect of children, property damage and substance abuse while the sexual offenders had higher rates of previous sexual offending. For psychiatric disturbance and adversity in childhood, only ADHD showed a significant difference between groups with the non sexual offenders recording higher rates.     

Patterns of offending among people with intellectual disability: a systematic review. Part I: methodology and prevalence data

A systematic review of research on offenders with intellectual disability (ID) was conducted. In the present study, the first of a two‐part presentation of the findings, the authors outline the methodology of the review and present data on the prevalence of offending by adults with ID. The review highlights the methodological problems of the research and the low level of rigour in many of the studies. The organization of the penal and ‘care’ systems are seen to have a huge impact on research findings. In addition, studies which adopt an IQ‐based concept of ID show low rates of offending, whilst those which use wider definitions (e.g. attendance at special school) show higher ones. There is also preliminary evidence for believing that the prevalence of arson and sexual offences may be higher relative to other kinds of crimes for people with ID than for other offenders.     

A longitudinal analysis of early risk factors for adult‐onset offending: What predicts a delayed criminal career?

Background Late‐onset offending, at the age of 21 or thereafter, is an underexplored dimension of the criminal career. Aims Our aims were to explore which factors are precursors of late‐onset offending, and the extent to which adult criminality can be predicted in childhood and adolescence. Method This is the first study that defines late‐onset offending based on a combination of official records and self‐reports. Longitudinal data from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development (CSDD) were used. Four hundred and three South London men, followed from ages 8–10 to ages 48–50, were divided into late‐starters (LS, n = 51), early‐starters (ES, n = 140) and non‐offenders (NO, n = 212). Results LS men were more likely than NO men to have been neurotic, truants or in poor housing at ages 8–10. At ages 12–14, they tended to be neurotic, and at ages 16–18, they had high unemployment and spent time hanging about on the streets. Compared with ES, LS were nervous at ages 8–10, and at age 18 they were more likely to be sexual virgins. Overall, LS men were more similar to NO men before age 21, but more similar to ES men by age 32. Conclusions Our hypotheses that late‐onset offenders would be particularly characterised by neuroticism or nervousness, but that this would buffer rather than fully protect over the life course, were sustained. Intervention to increase the resilience of children and adolescents who are rated as high on neurotic characteristics may lessen the burden that these factors impose in adult life and reduce the risk of a deteriorating quality of life and late onset criminal careers. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Les expériences d’adversité chez les auteurs d’infractions à caractère sexuel

Research has suggested that children who experience violence and sexual abuse are at risk for inappropriate behavior, including repeating the violence and sexual abuse as adults. Many theories posit that sexual victimization in childhood plays an important role in later sexual offending against children and studies generally find an association between childhood sexual abuse and sexual offending against children. The most prominent hypothesis about offenses against children is the “sexually abused – sexual abuser”. This hypothesis predicts that individuals victimized in childhood will perpetrate sexual abuse upon child victims in the future. This research's objective was to assess the childhood experience of care and abuse among sex offenders (sexual assault on children, adult or the both) in comparison to non-sex offenders in a forensic population (n = 99). These experiences are evaluated with the Childhood Experience of Care and Abuse (CECA), based on a semi-structured interview. The CECA evaluates the chronology, duration, and the intensity (no, low, moderate, high) of the different types of adversity (antipathy, neglect, parental violence, sexual, physical or psychological abuse). The aim is to identify the different adversities and types of care experienced by sex offenders, by type of type of sex offenders in comparison to non-sex offenders. The results are: non-sex offenders present fewer sexual abuses than AICS with young extrafamilial victims and AICS with children and adult victims. However, the severity of the abuse does not vary between the groups compared to neglect, physical abuse and parental violence. These three types of adversity are usually with a marked severity among non-sex offenders. The AICS showed less marked severities.     

Cognitive inhibitory control and self-reported impulsivity among violent offenders with schizophrenia

There is evidence for reduced cognitive inhibitory control in schizophrenia, but associated behavioral consequences are unclear. In an investigation of the link between cognitive inhibition and impulsive behavior, violent offenders with schizophrenia (n=18) and healthy adults completed spatial Stroop and negative priming tasks and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (a self-report impulsivity measure). Negative priming (but not Stroop) was impaired among violent offenders with schizophrenia, but there was no association between reduced inhibition and impulsivity. While these findings should be interpreted with caution, cognitive inhibition in schizophrenia may be unrelated to impulsive behaviors that are commonly linked to violent offending.     

Juvenile Sexual Offenders Compared to Juvenile Offenders in Generalin Western Australia

The literature in the field of juvenile offending reveals an ongoing debate about whether juvenile sexual offenders form a distinct group when compared to juvenile offenders in general. This is a very complex question because of the dynamics of sexual offending. When we examined the data collected from the official records of 334 juvenile sexual offenders convicted in Western Australia between 1990 and 1998 we found that nearly three-quarters of them were also convicted of other offences. It appeared that for most of them sexual offending was part of a much more pervasive pattern of juvenile offending. Our literature review revealed that most studies that compared juvenile sexual offenders with other juvenile offenders failed to find systematic differences. In order to explore this further we compared the demographic characteristics and offence histories of our sample with that of the total juvenile offender population in Western Australia during the same period using data obtained from the Crime and Justice Statistics for Western Australia. These statistics are published annually by the Crime Research Centre of the University of Western Australia (CRC). In spite of the relatively fewer females and relatively more Aboriginal people among the juvenile sexual offenders, we conclude that there is not a conspicuous difference between the demographic characteristics and offence patterns of juvenile sexual offenders and that of all juvenile offenders in Western Australia.     

A comparison of offenders with intellectual disability across three levels of security

Background A number of authors have described, with disparate results, the prevalence of people with intellectual disability and their characteristics, in a range of offender cohorts defined by service use. These have included high security, a range of criminal justice services and community services. There is a need for research comparing cohorts of offenders with intellectual disabilities across different settings. Aim and hypothesis To conduct such a comparison and test the hypothesis that severity of characteristics measured will be highest in highest levels of residential security. Method A clinical‐record‐based comparison a offenders with intellectual disability in high security (n = 73), medium/low security (n = 70), and a community service (n = 69). Results Groups were similar in age and tested IQ levels. Early psychiatric service contact had been more likely in the lower security groups. In line with the hypothesis, more complex presentations, in particular comorbid personality disorder, was more likely in the highest security group. Both fatal and non‐fatal interpersonal violence convictions were significantly related to group, with more in the high security group sustaining a conviction both at the index offence and prior to that. Over 50% of all groups had at least one conviction for a sexual offence. A regression model accounting for 78% of the variance was made up largely of disposal variables (Mental Health Act status and probation) and indications of antisocial traits (criminal damage, lifetime conviction for murder and ICD‐10 personality disorder classification). Conclusions and implications for practice The authors show that context of sampling affects most relationships between intellectual disability (ID) and offending when the methods for measuring ID are held constant. The results also present several questions on the relationship between risk, services available in an area and referral to higher security. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The ‘Worst of the Worst’: Detectives’ Beliefs about Dangerous Violent Offenders and How to Deal with Them

Police detectives come into contact with a community's most dangerous violent offenders, but there is little empirical research concerning detectives’ beliefs about their characteristics. Twenty experienced detectives compared the characteristics and attributes of two offenders they believed to be the most dangerous repeat violent offenders in their community with two violent offenders who they believed to be less dangerous. Eighty offenders were identified in total. Thirteen bipolar dangerous–less dangerous constructs that differentiate the most dangerous violent offenders from other violent offenders were identified. The most frequently identified themes, mentioned by three quarters or more of the detectives, are being a heavy drug user (particularly amphetamines), being impulsive, and not thinking of the consequences of one's actions. The next three themes, mentioned by half of the detectives are extensive and regular offending, breadth of offending, and wishing to portray oneself as a ‘tough guy’. One theme detectives did not mention frequently is mental illness as being associated with the most violent offenders, suggesting that detectives may miss mental illness in their interactions with offenders. Detectives suggested responding to the most dangerous violent offenders with longer sentences, extensive monitoring and better intelligence.     

Sexual offending in schizophrenia - a comparative trial

Studies suggest a complex relationship between schizophrenia and sexually offensive behaviour. The mental disorder itself, antisocial personality traits, drug abuse and adverse childhood experiences are suggested to have an impact on sexual offending in mentally disordered offenders. Similarities in psychosexual variables for schizophrenic and sexual offenders in general are found. This study aimed to preserve first findings of sex offence features and behaviours exhibited by psychotic men in Germany. Furthermore a typology of the schizophrenic offenders was developed. Records of 64-male restricted hospital order in-patients (32 patients with and 32 patients without an ICD-10 psychotic disorder) examined at the Institute for Forensic Psychiatry or resident in the Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy of the prisons in Berlin from 1980 - 2006 with an index conviction for a contact sex offence against a woman provided the material for research. A comparative trial design was used to differentiate the psychotic and non psychotic offender group. A check list which based on the method of a content analysis containing items related to the offender and the index offence was developed and applied to the records of men. A similar extent of social isolation, psychosexual variables and adverse childhood experiences are found for schizophrenic and non schizophrenic offenders. Negative symptoms of schizophrenia as well as antisocial traits had a great impact on schizophrenic sexual offending. Solely the occurrence of bizarre behaviour was influenced by positive symptoms. Different offence characteristics appeared in the four outlined schizophrenic subgroups such as bizarre behaviour of the psychotic, assaultive behaviour of the dissocial, chaotic behaviour of the substance abusive and negative childhood experiences of the sadistic schizophrenic offenders. The partly controversial findings underline the need for further studies to understand sexual offending in the heterogeneous group of schizophrenic men.     

Evidence for superior neurobiological and behavioral inhibitory control abilities in non‐offending as compared to offending pedophiles

Neurobehavioral models of pedophilia and child sexual offending suggest a pattern of temporal and in particular prefrontal disturbances leading to inappropriate behavioral control and subsequently an increased propensity to sexually offend against children. However, clear empirical evidence for such mechanisms is still missing. Using a go/nogo paradigm in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) we compared behavioral performance and neural response patterns among three groups of men matched for age and IQ: pedophiles with (N = 40) and without (N = 37) a history of hands‐on sexual offences against children as well as healthy non‐offending controls (N = 40). As compared to offending pedophiles, non‐offending pedophiles exhibited superior inhibitory control as reflected by significantly lower rate of commission errors. Group‐by‐condition interaction analysis also revealed inhibition‐related activation in the left posterior cingulate and the left superior frontal cortex that distinguished between offending and non‐offending pedophiles, while no significant differences were found between pedophiles and healthy controls. Both areas showing distinct activation pattern among pedophiles play a critical role in linking neural networks that relate to effective cognitive functioning. Data therefore suggest that heightened inhibition‐related recruitment of these areas as well as decreased amount of commission errors is related to better inhibitory control in pedophiles who successfully avoid committing hands‐on sexual offences against children. Hum Brain Mapp 38:1092–1104, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

An exploration of individual differences in a sample of youth charged with violent sexual and non-sexual crimes

Youth who engage in violent crime, including sexual offences, remain understudied. Research conducted on adults suggests that factors linked to antisocial and violent behaviour may enhance the current understanding of sexual offences. These factors include a consideration of how dark personality traits (such as psychopathy) and childhood maltreatment may inform the likelihood of sexual offending. Utilizing a sample of juvenile alleged violent offenders (n?=?113), the present study examines the construct of adolescent psychopathy, with abuse as a potential moderator, in relation to offence perpetration. Contrary to some of the literature on adults, the findings indicate that neither psychopathy nor experience of abuse differentiates sexual from non-sexual violent offenders. They also suggest that scoring higher on psychopathy relates to violence more broadly. The importance of tailored programming for youth who may be at risk of offending or who require treatment in the justice system is explored.     

Relating psychiatric disorders, offender and offence characteristics in a sample of adolescent sex offenders and non-sex offenders

Introduction Several studies have paid attention to the relationship between psychiatric disorders and adolescent offending but few have distinguished different types of offenders, especially within the category of youngsters who have committed sex offences. Aim To test for relationships between psychiatric disorder and specific offence category among young male offenders. Method Nationwide data were extracted from Dutch Forensic Psychiatric Services (FPD) files for five groups of offenders, as defined by their index offence: 308 violent sex offenders; 134 non‐violent sex‐offenders; 270 sex offenders against children; 3148 violent offenders and 1620 offenders charged with any crime other than interpersonal body contact crimes. They were compared on individual characteristics and psychiatric diagnoses according to DSM‐IV criteria. Having a diagnosis of a paraphilia alone was exclusively associated with sex offending, therefore all such youths were excluded from further analyses. The OVERALS technique was used to explore possible relationships between offence, psychiatric diagnoses, sociodemographic and individual characteristics among the remaining young men for whom all pertinent data were available (n = 1894). Results Sex offenders constituted a distinct group of juvenile delinquents. Developmental disorders were more common among non‐violent sex offenders and child molesters. Violent offences were more typical of delinquents from immigrant backgrounds. Conclusion Group differences in types of psychiatric diagnoses may reflect differences in aetiological factors for the various types of sexual and other delinquent behaviour, and this would be worthy of further study. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Comparison of Referrals With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder to Forensic Intellectual Disability Services

Although some authors have suggested that there are higher rates of people with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in forensic and offending groups, systematic studies have not supported the hypothesis. The present study reviewed 477 referrals made to forensic intellectual disability (ID) services in one calendar year. It was found that 10% of referrals had ASD, a figure similar to the general population of people with ID. Those with ASD had similar patterns of offending to those without but they showed a lower prevalence of contact sexual offences and fewer had been previously charged. We concluded that there is no persuasive evidence that ASD is a risk factor for offending or for any particular type of offending.     

Trait impulsivity in suicide attempters: Preliminary study

Suicide attempt is a risk factor for suicide. To investigate trait impulsivity among suicide attempters, 93 attempters admitted to an emergency department and 113 healthy controls were evaluated using the Japanese version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS‐11J). Impulsivity was analyzed in relation to clinical data in the attempters. Total BIS‐11J, attention impulsiveness, and motor impulsiveness scores were significantly higher in the attempters than in the controls. Both total BIS‐11J and non‐planning impulsiveness scores were significantly higher in attempters with schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders among the diagnostic groups. Control of impulsivity should be considered as one of the targets for suicide prevention.     

Homosexuality among people with a mild intellectual disability: an explorative study on the lived experiences of homosexual people in the Netherlands with a mild intellectual disability

Background Empirical research on homosexuality among people with an intellectual disability (ID) is limited and, to date, very little is known regarding the personal experiences of gay and lesbian people with an ID. This study set out to answer the question: What are the lived experiences of a specific cohort of homosexual people with an intellectual disability living in the Netherlands? Method To answer this question, a qualitative study was performed in which 21 people with a mild ID were interviewed via semi‐structured interviews. In this study, 19 participants were men and two were women (average age = 40.5 years). Results Participants reported positive and negative experiences, and talked about their gay or lesbian identity. Almost half of the participants (n = 10) reported that they had experienced sexual abuse including partner violence (n = 6). Additionally, they indicated that there was a lack of support for homosexual people with an ID. Conclusion Specific problems impact the lives of homosexual people with ID, namely the high prevalence of negative sexual experiences, the lack of support, training and sex education, and their search for a suitable partner.