腹部器官移植术后并发症的磁共振检查

目的探讨磁共振在腹部器官移植并发症中的诊断价值。方法对4例肝移植、5例胰肾联合移植及2例肾移植患者进行磁共振检查，检查时间在术后28d至2年，采用GE1．5TMR机型，成像技术包括常规平扫及增强扫描。结果4例肝移植，1例发生肝动脉狭窄伴肝坏死，1例发生下腔静脉血栓形成，1例为肝静脉与下腔静脉吻合口明显狭窄，1例为左右肝管明显狭窄；5例胰、肾联合移植中，1例并发急性排斥反应，1例为移植胰慢性排斥反应伴纤维化，1例为迟发性胰腺炎，移植肾4例正常，1例并发急性排斥反应伴肾梗死；2例单纯肾移植者，1例为肾动脉局限性中度狭窄，1例为肾动脉与髂内动脉吻合口处动脉瘤形成。上述病理改变均经组织病理检查和数字减影血管造影证实。结论磁共振可作为腹部器官移植并发症的一种无损伤检查手段，对于血管并发症，有其独有的优势。     

降低肝移植术后手术技术相关胆道并发症的体会

目的 探讨肝移植的手术技巧，以降低手术相关胆道并发症。方法 对89例终末期肝病患者施行腔静脉成形的改良背驮式原位肝移植，供肝肝总动脉与受者肝总动脉端端吻合，供肝肝总管或胆总管与受者胆总管端端吻合，未置T管。术后定期进行影像学检查，了解移植肝是否出现胆道并发症。结果 1例术后5个月发生肝门分叉处胆管狭窄，经球囊扩张后效果不佳，再次手术行胆管狭窄成形术后治愈；其余患者未发生胆漏、吻合口狭窄、胆泥或胆道结石、肝门部胆管狭窄、胆管炎、胆汁瘤、粘液囊肿及十二指肠乳头功能异常等胆道并发症。结论 注重供肝的灌洗和修整，提高肝动脉吻合和胆道重建技巧，可有效避免或减少技术性胆道并发症的发生。     

改进供肝处理方法减少肝移植术后早期胆道并发症

目的改进供肝处理方法，以减少肝移植术后的胆道并发症。方法供肝处理进行如下改进：（1）肝门游离仅达胃十二指肠动脉下缘，不游离其上方的肝蒂结构；（2）修整供肝时暂不结扎胃十二指肠动脉本身的断端；（3）修整供肝时暂不切除胆囊，待供肝植入、肝动脉重建后切除。共行99例肝移植，患者的原发病，58％为良性肝病，42％为肝癌。供肝热缺血和冷缺血时间分别控制在5min和16h以内。胆道重建方式均为胆总管-胆总管端端吻合，其中5例放置T管。观察术后早期胆道并发症的发生情况。结果4例（4％，4／99）肝移植术后发生胆道并发症，其中1例术后10d发现胆道吻合口漏；1例术后5个月胆道内有胆树形成；1例为胆道吻合口狭窄；1例为左肝管狭窄。改进前的肝移植术后早期胆道并发症发生率为11．6％（5／43）。结论通过改进供肝的处理方法，可最大限度地保留供肝胆道血液供应，显著减少术后胆道并发症。     

彩色多普勒超声及超声造影在肝移植术后血管并发症中的应用

目的探讨彩色多普勒超声（CDU）和超声造影（CEUS）在检测肝移植术后血管并发症中的应用价值并对两者进行比较。方法对肝移植术后患者常规行CDU检查，对CDU疑肝血管血流异常患者行超声造影检查，观察肝动脉、门静脉、下腔静脉及肝实质的血流灌注，对其中29例经数字减影血管造影术（DSA）或CT血管造影（CTA）／MR血管造影（MRA）证实病例的CDU及造影检查资料进行分析。结果术后血管并发症患者29例，其中肝动脉狭窄22例，肝动脉血栓闭塞3例（肝动脉血栓闭塞合并肝梗死2例），门静脉狭窄2例，下腔静脉狭窄1例，另1例为肝门部血肿并肝动脉、门静脉受压狭窄。CDU显示25例狭窄均有血流参数异常，但不能判断狭窄部位及程度，3例血栓闭塞者，动脉血流均未显示，但不能肯定诊断；超声造影可明确诊断肝动脉血栓闭塞，显示肝动脉、门静脉及下腔静脉狭窄，与DSA或CTA／MRA结果符合率分别为100％（3，3）、90．9％（20／22）、100％（2／2）及100％（1／1）。结论CDU与超声造影互为补充，有利于提高肝移植术后血管并发症的诊断准确性。     

内镜逆行胰胆管造影在肝移植后胆系并发症诊断和治疗中的作用

目的：评价内镜逆行胰胆管造影(ERCP)在肝移植术后胆系并发症诊治中的临床价值。方法：11例肝移植术后并发胆系并发症，其中吻合口狭窄4例，吻合口及供肝肝总管均狭窄2例，胆漏2例，多发性硬化性胆管炎样狭窄2例，移植肝胆总管与受者胆总管分离1例，分别行ERCP检查及治疗。结果：4例吻合口狭窄者，放置胆管塑料支架，2例吻合口和供肝肝总管均狭窄者放置Wallstenl，金属支架，上述6例近期黄疸均消退；2例胆漏者中，1例放置胆道塑料内支架，另1例行乳头括约肌切开术，均于2周内胆漏愈合；2例移植肝多发性硬化性胆管炎样狭窄者，1例行乳头括约肌切开后取出少量坏死胆管上皮样组织，另1例未行内镜治疗；1例移植肝胆总管与受者胆总管分离者再次手术行胆管吻合术。结论：内镜逆行胰胆管造影可用于肝移植术后的常见胆系并发症的诊断与治疗，可获得较好的近期疗效。     

肝移植术后胆道狭窄的临床特点及治疗效果(附60例报告)

目的 探讨肝移植术后并发胆道狭窄的临床特点及治疗效果.方法 回顾性分析60例肝移植术后胆道狭窄患者的临床资料.并对其临床特点和治疗效果进行了分析和讨论.结果 肝移植术后胆道狭窄的主要症状为胆道梗阻和胆管炎表现.其平均诊断时间为术后(195.5±146.5)d.胆道狭窄早期,肝功能损害主要为血清丙氨酸转氨酶、总胆红素、谷氨酰转肽酶及碱性磷酸酶水平升高,而白蛋白降低;胆道狭窄晚期时,丙氨酸转氨酶水平下降,出现"胆酶分离"现象.经内窥镜逆行胰胆管造影(ERCP)检查发现,胆道狭窄部位为单纯吻合口狭窄6例;肝门部和/或合并吻合口狭窄11例;肝内胆管弥漫性狭窄11例;吻合口合并肝内胆管弥漫性/节段性狭窄32例.其它并发症还包括胆管内有异物、狭窄近端扩张、胆管扭曲及十二指肠乳头旁憩室等.经ERCP介入治疗,取出胆管内异物、坏死组织、结石以及狭窄段球囊扩张等处理后,33例患者治愈,18例好转,9例治疗无效.结论 肝移植术后胆道狭窄的临床表现既有特征性,又有多样性,且合并症较多;采用ERCP介入治疗胆道狭窄效果理想.     

原位肝移植肝动脉并发症的防治

目的 探讨原位肝移植肝动脉并发症的预防及治疗。方法 回顾性分析1999年2月至2001年2月完成的22例原位肝移植，其中4例行体外静脉转流下的原位肝移植术，17例行背驮式原位肝移植，1例为活体供肝部分肝移植。11例供肝的肝固有动脉与受者的肝固有动脉吻合，4例供者脾动脉与受者肝总动脉吻合，3例供者腹腔动脉与受者肝总动脉吻合，2例应用供者髂动脉在供者肝固有动脉与受者腹主动脉间架桥吻合，1例供者肝右动脉与受者肝固有动脉吻合，1例供者肝固有动脉与受者异位肝右动脉吻合。术后以多普勒超声扫描监测肝动脉血流。结果 1例术后5d时发生肝动脉血栓形成，以尿酶介入溶栓后出现吻合口出血，再次手术行肝动脉吻合。21例无肝动脉并发症发生。15例随访1－20个月，多普勒超声扫描提示肝动脉血流、形态正常，胆道造影未见肝外胆管狭窄，血清学检查提示肝功能状态良好。结论 原位肝移植预防肝动脉并发症的关键在于血管吻合时操作精细，实现血管内膜对内膜的无张力吻合。     

同种异体原位肝移植的肝动脉重建

目的 总结同种异体原位肝移植术中肝动脉吻合的经验。方法 回顾悸分析20例原位肝移植术中影响肝动脉吻合的因素和处理技巧。结果 16例行供、受者肝固有动脉端端吻合，3例供者肝总动脉与受者肝固有动脉吻合，1例供者肝总动脉与受者脾动脉吻合；术后彩色多普勒超声监测显示肝动脉血流通畅，均未发现有血栓形成或肝动脉狭窄，全部病例未发生胆道并发症，现存活15例。结论 合理选择吻合用血管是避免术后发生血栓形成和动脉狭窄的关键。     

彩色多普勒超声对肝移植术后11例血管并发症的诊断

目的评价彩色多普勒超声对肝移植术后血管并发症的诊断意义。方法回顾性分析和总结11例肝移植术后血管并发症的彩色多普勒超声检查资料,检测指标包括肝动脉及左右分支的峰值速度、阻力指数、加速度及加速时间,门静脉平均流速。结果5例经手术或造影证实为动脉并发症(血栓形成2例,肝动脉狭窄2例,肝动脉痉挛1例),彩色多普勒超声表现有肝动脉狭窄处的高速高阻血流并伴有湍流,而狭窄远端肝内动脉峰值速度<40cm/s,阻力指数<0.5,加速时间>0.08s,加速度<300cm/s2,2例肝动脉血栓形成肝门部无动脉血流信号;6例为门静脉并发症(3例门静脉狭窄,3例门静脉血栓形成)。结论彩色多普勒超声对肝移植术后血管并发症的诊断具有重要的指导意义。     

超声检查在活体肝移植受体术后胆道并发症诊断中的应用

目的探讨超声检查在活体肝移植术后胆道并发症诊断中的临床应用。方法对21例成人右半肝活体移植受体术后进行超声检查,观察移植肝及其胆道声像图表现,与经皮经肝穿刺胆道造影引流(PTCD)等影像学结果相对比。结果 21例病例经PTCD及临床随访证实为胆管吻合口狭窄5例,胆泥1例,胆漏1例。超声检查能够诊断并与之相符5例,为4例吻合口狭窄及1例胆泥,胆漏病例可见肝周积液。其中4例胆管吻合口狭窄病例超声诊断时间均明显早于临床出现黄疸或血清胆红素升高的时间。结论在活体肝移植术后胆道并发症的诊断中,超声检查操作简便、无创、可重复性强、准确性较高,可早期诊断胆管并发症,具有重要的临床应用价值。     

Endoscopic treatment of bile duct complications after orthotopic liver transplantation

AIM: To assess the indications and results of endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography (ERCP) in patients who have undergone ortotopic liver transplantation (OLT). METHODS: We reviewed data from 42 consecutive patients who underwent ERCP for biliary complications after OLT over an 8-year period, in particular recording indications and success of the treatment after a mean of 17 months follow-up. RESULTS: Cholangiograms performed in 33/42 patients (79%) displayed anastomotic strictures in 17 patients (52%), bile duct stones in 8 (24%), both bile duct stones and an anastomotic stricture in 2 (6%), papillary stenosis in 1 (3%), and anastomotic biliary leakage in 1 (3%). In contrast, the contrastogram was normal in four patients (12%). Stone extraction was completed in 9/10 patients (90%) with a mean of 1.2 sessions, while stricture dilation was achieved in 12/19 patients (63%) after a mean of 1.7 sessions, by stent positioning (n = 7), balloon dilation (n = 4), or Soehendra dilator (n = 1). Both biliary leakage and papillary stenosis were cured by ERCP. Only one procedure-related complication -- severe pancreatitis (2.4%) -- was observed and no mortality. CONCLUSION: ERCP is a safe and effective mode of management of bile duct complications after OLT. It should be attempted before a surgical approach. Better results are obtained for treatment of biliary stones than of anastomotic strictures.     

Dearterialization of the liver causes intrahepatic cholestasis due to reduced bile transporter expression

BACKGROUND: Bile duct injury after hepatic artery thrombosis (HAT) in liver transplantation is believed to be caused by ischemia predominantly. We aimed to define the involvement of bile secretory dysfunction in the pathogenesis of liver injury after HAT. METHODS: In a murine model, the main hepatic artery, the extrahepatic peribiliary plexus, or both arterial connections to the liver were interrupted (n=5 for each group). After 1, 14, or 28 days, hepatobiliary function was assessed by analysis of bile transporter expression, serum bile acids and bilirubin, and hepatic ATP content. In addition, cellular injury was assessed by light microscopy and biochemical markers. RESULTS: There were no signs of hepatobiliary dysfunction or injury in sham-operated animals or in mice with interruption of the hepatic artery or the extrahepatic peribiliary plexus alone. However, as early as 24 hr after complete dearterialization, bile transporter expression was significantly reduced and intrahepatic cholestasis started to progress the following weeks. Histologic studies at 28 days after complete dearterialization showed severe hepatobiliary injury. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that arterial blood supply is critical for normal bile secretion. Bile duct injury after complete arterial deprivation is preceded by a loss of bile secretory function and subsequent intrahepatic cholestasis.     

肝移植术后胆道并发症的诊断与治疗

目的 探讨肝移植术后胆道并发症的诊断与治疗.方法 分析2007-2009年肝移植术后不同类型胆道并发症的患者的临床资料,评价胴道并发症的类型,处理方式及术后恢复情况.结果 肝移植术后胆道并发症患者23例,包括胆漏患者12例,计胆管吻合口漏7例,肝断面胆管漏3例,胆囊管漏1例,迷走胆管漏1例;移植术后胆管狭窄患者11例,其中吻合口狭窄4例,非吻合口性狭窄7例.7例吻合口漏患者中,胆管重建2例(Roux-en-Y吻合和胆肠襻式Warren吻合);胆道吻合口修补1例;单纯依靠外引流管引流1例,活体双供肝肝移植的患者剖腹探查纠正胆漏失败后行再次肝移植1例;行经内镜逆行胰胆管造影(endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography,ERCP)植入支架2例.肝断面胆管漏3例中,行肝断面胆管缝扎1例,ERCP联合B超引导下穿刺引流2例,引流2个月后胆漏闭合,拔除引流管,但是随后又出现胆道狭窄,ERCP术后,病情好转.胆囊管漏1例,行胆囊管缝扎.迷走胆管漏1例,行胆囊床缝扎.吻合口狭窄的患者4例,3例经ERCP治愈,1例行胆肠吻合重建胆道后治愈.非吻合口性狭窄的7例,行ERCP治疗3例,ERCP失败后,行经皮肝穿刺胆管引流(percutaneous transhepatic cholangiographic drainage,PTCD)1例;再次肝移植3例,2例患者术后恢复良好,1例死于严重感染.结论 肝移植术后胆道并发症危害大,关键在于预防.     

逆行胰胆管造影在肝移植中的应用

目的探讨经内镜逆行胰胆管造影(ERCP)在诊断和治疗肝移植术后胆道并发症中的应用。方法对本院肝移植术后出现胆道并发症的16例患者进行ERCP检查,并根据情况分别行鼻胆管引流(ENBD)和/或内镜下乳头切开取石(EST)等治疗。结果ERCP确诊16例肝移植术后胆道并发症,发生率为9.47%,其中胆道结石6例,胆道狭窄3例,吻合口漏2例,胆道结石伴左肝管狭窄1例,吻合口胆漏伴胆道结石3例,1例示供受体胆管比例不一致,供体胆管相对狭窄,所有患者都得到有效治疗。结论内镜下ERCP是诊断和治疗肝移植术后胆道并发症的一种安全而有效的手段,可作为非手术治疗中的首选。     

Surgical complications accompanying liver transplantation in Estonia

The purpose of this study was to evaluate surgical complications accompanying the introduction of orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) in Estonia. Between 1999 and 2009, we performed the first 12 liver transplantations. Eight patients were males and four were females of age range 12 to 67 years. Their diagnoses were cholestatic disease (n = 5); tumor (n = 3); hepatitis C virus cirrhosis (n = 2); Budd-Chiari syndrome (n = 1); and cystic fibrosis (n = 1). Technical complications occurred in 7/12 patients. The early vascular complications in two patients were a suprahepatic vena cava lesion occurring at liver extraction, which resulted in uncontrolled suprahepatic bleeding after liver perfusion; the recipient died during transplantation. The other case displayed a right intrahepatic portal venous thrombosis, which was treated successfully with thrombolysis and anticoagulant therapy. Early biliary complications of biliary leaks occurred in three patients: two had undergone duct-to-duct reconstructions, which were treated by endoscopic retrograde cholangiography that successfully managed the anastomotic and recipient cystic duct leaks with a papillotomy and stenting. In one patient with a duct-to-jejunum anastomosis, a bile leak stopped at 3 weeks but he needed surgical therapy 2 years later due to an anastomotic stricture. Severe decubitus occurred in the lumbosacral region of the subjects with operating times of 14 hours. They required necretectomy and plastic surgery. One of them with postoperative intra-abdominal hypertension also displayed wound eventration requiring reoperations. The rate of hepatic (5/12) and extrahepatic (3/12) surgical complications, as well as of 1-year survival (9/12), in our period of implementation of OLT were satisfactory to continue OLT development in Estonia.     

The role of intrahepatic cholangiojejunostomy in liver transplant recipients after extensive destruction of the extrahepatic biliary system.

BACKGROUND. Extensive destruction of the extrahepatic biliary system after liver transplantation can be a catastrophic event. We present our experience with the use of intrahepatic cholangiojejunostomy (IHCJ) in this setting. METHODS. From July 1985 through December 1991, 668 liver transplantations were performed in 583 patients. Seven patients required IHCJ. This technique involves creating an anastomosis between the jejunal mucosal and hepatic parenchyma/capsule with the use of a Roux-en-Y limb of bowel. There were four adults and three children. The clinical presentation included bile leak (n = 4), subhepatic abscess (n = 2), and intrahepatic abscess (n = 1). The probable cause of these events included hepatic arterial thrombosis (n = 4), occult bile leak (n = 2), and fungal cholangitis (n = 1). RESULTS. After IHCJ, six of the seven patients are currently alive, with a mean follow-up of 28 months. The current liver function test results include a mean bilirubin of 0.7 mg/dl (range, 0.4 to 1.9 mg/dl), serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase of 69 units/L (range, 32 to 118 units/L), and gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase of 118 IU/L (range, 111 to 265 IU/L). CONCLUSIONS. These results suggest that IHCJ is a safe and effective alternative to retransplantation in liver recipients with extensive destruction of the extrahepatic biliary system.     

内镜逆行胰胆管造影术治疗肝移植术后并发胆管结石受者临床分析

目的探讨肝移植术后并发胆管结石受者行内镜逆行胰胆管造影术(ERCP)治疗的安全性和有效性。 方法回顾性分析南京军区福州总医院肝胆外科2005年1月至2015年12月肝移植术后并发胆管结石受者的临床资料。24例受者胆管结石确诊主要依据T管造影、MRCP或ERCP。确诊胆管结石受者均采用ERCP下行球囊扩张联合胆道塑料支架置入治疗,术中采用地西泮镇静,同时密切监测生命体征。观察肝移植术后并发胆管结石受者结石类型、狭窄情况、ERCP治疗情况及其治疗前后肝功能指标变化。采用Wilcoxon符号秩和检验比较ERCP治疗前后受者血清总胆红素(TBil)、碱性磷酸酶(ALP)、谷氨酰转肽酶(GGT)、ALT和AST水平变化。P<0.05为差异有统计学意义。 结果24例受者中胆总管结石20例(包括单纯胆总管结石11例、胆总管结石合并胆管狭窄9例),肝内、外胆管结石4例。肝移植至并发胆管结石平均间隔时间(604±215)d。19例发生在术后12～66个月,余5例发生在术后3个月内。11例胆总管结石受者采用柱状球囊扩张＋取石篮取石＋胆总管置入内支架引流治疗,治疗有效。9例胆总管结石合并胆管狭窄受者采用柱状球囊扩张＋取石篮取石＋胆总管置入内支架＋鼻胆管引流治疗,其中8例治疗有效;1例因重度胆管狭窄,反复内镜取石不能取尽,继发感染再次行肝移植。4例肝内、外胆管结石受者均采用柱状球囊扩张＋取石篮取石＋左、右肝管置入内支架＋鼻胆管引流治疗,治疗有效。受者内镜治疗后血清TBil、ALP和GGT分别为31、179和247 mmol/L,均低于内镜治疗前水平(43、273和385 mmol/L),差异均有统计学意义(z＝0.042、0.001、0.004,P均<0.05)。截至2017年12月,24例受者随访时间为1～2年,4例因原发性肝癌复发分别于肝移植术后9、5、34、25个月死亡,1例因上消化道出血于肝移植术后34个月死亡,1例因重度胆管狭窄行二次肝移植并于2014年4月因肝脓肿继发感染性休克死亡,1例因感染性休克于肝移植术后33个月死亡,其余17例随访期间未见结石再发。 结论内镜下行球囊扩张联合塑料支架置入治疗原位肝移植术后并发胆管结石安全、有效,可作为目前原位肝移植术后并发胆管结石的首选治疗方案。     

ERCP诊治成人原位肝移植术后胆道并发症的临床研究

目的 :回顾性分析和评价内镜逆行胰胆管造影(ERCP)在成人原位肝移植胆道并发症诊疗中的作用。方法:38例成人原位肝移植术后胆道并发症患者实施61次ERCP,根据ERCP结果实施内镜治疗。结果:60次ERCP成功,成功率为98.36%(60/61)。ERCP明确胆道并发症原因后实施内镜治疗。并发症发生的部位为:供体肝胆管、受体胆管、胆管吻合口及十二指肠乳头。其中单纯胆管炎性狭窄7例,胆管炎性狭窄伴肝内外胆管铸型、胆泥或胆石形成10例;单纯胆管吻合口狭窄3例,狭窄伴肝内外胆管铸型、胆泥或胆石形成2例;胆管吻合口瘘2例,供体胆管与受体胆管直径差异过大1例;受体胆管过长、扭曲3例,受体胆管轻度扩张1例;十二指肠乳头狭窄2例,Oddi括约肌功能失调3例;T管脱落1例;胆道出血1例;ERCP插管失败1例。该组供体肝胆管并发症发生率最高,为44.74%(17/38);其次为胆管吻合口并发症,为21.05%(8/38)。治疗方式:乳头括约肌切开(EST)24.59%(15/61),乳头柱状球囊扩张(EPBD)16.39%(10/61),EST+EPBD 13.12%(8/61),扩张器扩张胆管36.07%(22/61),鼻胆管引流(ENBD)52.46%(32/61),胆管支架引流(ERBD)32.79%(20/61),取胆管铸型、胆泥或结石19.67%(12/61),胆道冲洗24.59%(15/61)。结论:ERCP具有诊疗一体化优点,已成为成人原位肝移植术后胆道并发症微创治疗的主要方法和重要治疗手段。     

Incidence and management of biliary complications after adult‐to‐adult living donor liver transplantation

Kyoden Y, Tamura S, Sugawara Y, Matsui Y, Togashi J, Kaneko J, Kokudo N, Makuuchi M. Incidence and management of biliary complications after adult‐to‐adult living donor liver transplantation.
Clin Transplant 2010: 24: 535–542.
© 2009 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Abstract: Background: There are few detailed reports of biliary complications in a large adult living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) series. Patient and methods: Biliary complications, treatment modalities, and outcomes in these patients were retrospectively analyzed in 310 adult LDLT. Results: One patient underwent retransplantation. Duct‐to‐duct anastomosis was primarily performed in 223 patients (72%). During the observation period (median 43 months), biliary complications were observed in 111 patients (36%); 53 patients (17%) had bile leakage, 70 patients (23%) had bile duct stenosis, and 12 patients (4%) had bile leakage followed by stenosis. A biliary anastomotic stent tube was placed in 266 patients (86%) at the time of transplantation. Univariate analysis of various clinical factors revealed duct‐to‐duct anastomosis as the single significant risk factor (p = 0.009) for biliary complications. The three‐yr and five‐yr overall patient survival rates were 88% and 85% in those with biliary complications, and 85% and 83%, respectively, in those without biliary complications (p = 0.59). Conclusion: Biliary complications are a major cause of morbidity following LDLT. Duct‐to‐duct anastomosis carried a higher risk for bile duct stenosis. With appropriate management, however, there was little influence on overall survival.