Formulation of rod-forming models and their application in spray forming

In rod spray forming, the preform changes its shape continually from that of a disc to a rod (transient-state rod growth) and then maintains its top surface profile once it has settled down (steady-state rod growth). The rod growth mechanism during spray forming was analyzed using rod-forming models. At a sufficiently high substrate rotation velocity, the calculated results based on the three-dimensional time-dependent model (3-D TDM) and the two-dimensional time-dependent model (2-D TDM) were observed to be identical. The calculated results of the rod’s top shape, obtained by the TDMs, were almost identical to those obtained by the two-dimensional time-independent model (2-D TIM), which means that there exists steady-state rod growth. The effects of spray-forming parameters, such as initial eccentric distance, substrate withdrawal velocity, and spray angle, on the shape-evolution behavior were analyzed in terms of the vertex growth velocity ( ). The optimum spray-forming condition to minimize transient-state rod growth was also presented. Experimental verification was made to confirm the proposed forming models.     

Modeling of spray-formed materials: Geometrical considerations

In this article, a mathematical model is formulated to predict the evolution and final geometry of an axisymmetric billet (i.e., round) obtained using an off-axis spray arrangement. The model is formulated by calculating the shape change of a profile curve of a billet surface, based on an axisymmetric surface. On the basis of this model, a methodology to determine the “shadowing effect” coefficient is presented. The modeling results suggest that there are three distinct regions in a spray-formed billet: a base transition region, a uniform diameter region, and an upper transition region. The effects of several important processing parameters, such as the withdrawal velocity of substrate, maximum deposition rate, spray distribution coefficient, initial eccentric distance, and rotational velocity of substrate, on the shape factors (e.g., the diameter size of the uniform region and the geometry of the transition regions) are investigated. The mechanisms responsible for the formation of the three distinct regions are discussed. Finally, the model is then implemented and a methodology is formulated to establish optimal processing parameters during spray forming, paying particular attention to deposition efficiency.     

喷射成形棒坯中沉积距离和回缩速度的选择

利用计算机数值模拟技术采用平均质量流率法建立了喷射成形空间质量流率分布和棒坯生长模型，通过讨论喷射成形空间质量流率分布得出沉积器的最佳位置hm和最佳回缩速度vo并计算了不同喷射参数对沉积坯端面形貌的影响。     

Mathematical modeling of copper and brass upcasting

A study has been performed to establish basic knowledge in heat transfer and solidification for copper and brass upcasting. The study combined pilot scale measurements, mathematical modeling, and metallographic examination of the cast rod samples. The pilot scale measurements involved temperature measurements with several thermocouples inserted in the copper jacket of the mold. Temperature measurements of the surface of the cast rod were carried out as well. A three-dimensional (3-D) mathematical model of the copper mold and graphite die was constructed to characterize the heat flux profiles quantitatively from the measured mold temperature data. The heat flux was observed to have a maximum value near the first contact point between the copper mold and the graphite die and to decrease rapidly with increasing distance up to the mold. The calculated heat flux profiles were used as boundary conditions for another mathematical model, which calculated temperature profiles in the cast rod. A model for estimation of material data and microstructure was used for simulating the thermophysical data needed in the calculations and to predict certain microstructural properties in the cast rods. The calculated surface temperatures of the cast rod at the mold exit agreed well with the measured temperature values. Also, the calculated microstructural properties, such as secondary dendrite arm spacing, phase distribution, and microsegregation of zinc, were in good agreement with the measured ones.     

Spray Deposition Behavior and Numerical Simulation of Growth of Tubular Preform in Spray Forming Process

 Analysis on the deposition behavior of spray on deposition surface was made and an optimization method for the movement parameters (u, ω) of substrate was obtained. Simultaneously, a mathematical model of growth of tubular preform, specifically aimed at the kind of atomizer that is fixed and with a tilt angle was established. By integrating the optimization method and the mathematical model, the growth process and shape of preform were simulated. The results show that the tilt angle of atomizer plays an important role on the dimensions and shapes of tubular preforms and it can provide a guidance for the development of spray forming equipment.     

喷射成形过程中圆锭坯外形生长的数值模拟

通过多次试验后得出雾化喷嘴的雾化特性公式,在此基础上建立了一种模拟喷射成形过程中圆锭坯外形生长的数学模型.该数学模型考虑了喷射成形过程中各种工艺参数,如喷嘴的雾化参数、偏心距离、沉积盘的旋转速度和下拉速度等参数的影响.经过模拟计算,得到了锭坯生长的三维外形尺寸,与实际喷射成形制备的锭坯外形对比,二者吻合很好;采用该模型分析了不同时间下锭坯的轮廓形状、偏心距离以及下拉速度变化后的锭坯轮廓形状.综合分析得出,此数学模型可以预测在不同工艺参数下喷射成形锭坯的外形生长过程.     

Numerical simulation of tube profile growth during spray forming process

Spray forming is a new type of metal material forming process,which can produce metal blanks such as billet,tube,plate etc.A mathematical model has been developed to forecast the shape evolution of tube billets during the spray forming process.The atomizer mass flux as,radial distribution coefficient bs,draw velocity and diameter of mandrel were considered in this model and the influence of different parameters such as metal flowrate,draw velocity of mandrel,diameter of mandrel on the tube’s shape change were simulated and analyzed in this paper.The simulation results obtained from this model can be provided to engineers as reference.     

Modelling of droplet dynamic and thermal histories during spray forming—II. Effect of process parameters

A computer model has been developed to describe the in-flight dynamic and thermal histories of gas atomised droplets as a function of distance during spray forming. The model has been used to investigate the effects of the dynamic and thermal behaviour of individual gas atomised droplets and the cooling and solidification behaviour of the overall spray. The most influential parameters for a given alloy system, in order of importance, are: (i) droplet diameter and, therefore, the droplet size distribution within the spray; (ii) initial axial gas velocity at the point of atomisation and the subsequent gas velocity decay profile; (iii) melt mass flow rate; (iv) melt superheat at the point of atomisation; and (v) alloy composition. Experimental measurements of gas velocities and droplet size distributions during spray forming allow the spray solid fraction at deposition to be calculated and used in a subsequent computer model of billet heat flow to predict the billet top surface temperatures and solid fractions.     

Modeling and Simulation of Spray Forming of Clad Deposits with Graded Interface Using Two Scanning Gas Atomizers

A three-dimensional shape model based on a surface coordinate tracking method has been developed for clad deposits with graded interface which are spray formed using two scanning gas atomizers. The calculation of element distributions in the deposits has been incorporated into the shape model. On this basis, the deposit shape and the element distributions in the deposit have been simulated. It shows that the scanning mode of the atomizers and the degree of overlapping of the two sprays play important roles in the spray forming of clad deposits. A concentration gradient of chemical elements in the deposits can be achieved under proper processing conditions. Finally, the modeling and simulation of the spray forming of clad deposits have been validated by experimental investigations.     

Numerical simulation of temperature distribution and solidification behaviour during spray forming

A mathematical, two-dimensional model for the analysis of the temperature and solidification behaviour in the substrate and deposit for the spray forming process of metals has been developed. Due to the irregular shape of the growing deposit, which changes with spraying time, a grid transformation method was successfully developed for the calculation of the temperature distribution and solidification front in the growing deposit. The influence of process parameters, i.e. thermal conditions of the metal spray at impact, heat transfer coefficient at the surface of the deposit and geometrical parameters, are qualitatively and quantitatively discussed.     

Spray Forming of Bulk Ultrafine-Grained Al-Fe-Cr-Ti

An Al-2.7Fe-1.9Cr-1.8Ti alloy has been spray formed in bulk and the microstructure and properties compared with those of similar alloys produced by casting, powder aomization (PA), and mechanical alloying (MA) routes. In PA and MA routes, a nanoscale metastable icosahedral phase is usually formed and is known to confer high tensile strength. Unlike previous studies of the spray forming of similar Al-based metastable phase containing alloys that were restricted to small billets with high porosity, standard spray forming conditions were used here to produce a ~98 pct dense 19-kg billet that was hot isostatically pressed (“HIPed”), forged, and/or extruded. The microstructure has been investigated at all stages of processing using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and synchrotron X-ray diffraction (XRD) at the Diamond Light Source. Consistent with the relatively low cooling rate in spray forming under standard conditions, the microstructure showed no compelling evidence for the formation of metastable icosahedral phases. Nonetheless, after downstream processing, the spray-formed mechanical properties as a function of temperature were very similar to both PA rapid solidification (RS) materials and those made by MA. These aspects have been rationalized in terms of the typical phases, defects, and residual strains produced in each process route.     

Deformation Behavior of Powder Metallurgy Connecting Rod Preform During Hot Forging Based on Hot Compression and Finite Element Method Simulation

Powder-forged connecting rod with a complex geometry shape always has a problem with nonuniform density distribution. Moreover, the physical property of preform plays a critical role for optimizing the connecting rod quality. The flow behavior of a Fe-3Cu-0.5C (wt pct) alloy with a relative density of 0.8 manufactured by powder metallurgy (P/M, Fe-Cu-C) was studied using isothermal compression tests. The material constitutive equation, power dissipation (η) maps, and hot processing maps of the P/M Fe-Cu-C alloy were established. Then, the hot forging process of the connecting rod preforms was simulated using the material constitutive model based on finite element method simulation. The calculated results agree well with the experimental ones. The results show that the flow stress increases with decreasing temperature and increasing strain rate. The activation energy of the P/M Fe-Cu-C alloy with a relative density of 0.8 is 188.42 kJ/mol. The optimum temperature at the strain of 0.4 for good hot workability of sintered Fe-Cu-C alloy ranges from 1333 K to 1380 K (1060 °C to 1107 °C). The relative density of the hot-forged connecting rod at the central part changed significantly compared with that at the big end and that at the small end. These present theoretical and experimental investigations can provide a methodology for accurately predicting the densification behavior of the P/M connecting rod preform during hot forging, and they help to optimize the processing parameters.

     

喷雾阀嘴多步成形有限元分析

喷雾阀嘴是喷雾罐的关键部件,其成形过程复杂、难度较大。采用三维光学扫描仪检测喷雾阀嘴各步成形件的三维尺寸,推导模具方案进行逆向建模。同时采用有限元技术分析喷雾阀嘴成形过程特点,探索材料性能对其成形质量的影响。结果表明,模型实现了精确分析喷雾阀嘴复杂的多步成形过程,可分析喷雾阀嘴任一时刻、任一位置的成形状态和成形质量状况。同时得出,MR T3-BA材料或比其屈服强度更高的材料容易出现成形质量问题。     

喷射成形高合金工具钢的组织与力学性能

采用喷射成形工艺制备了高合金工模具钢,对沉积坯进行了热锻致密化处理和淬火+回火热处理.对比分析了喷射沉积态合金和电渣重熔态合金的组织形态和力学性能.结果表明:喷射成形材料晶粒组织为均匀细小的等轴晶,碳化物细小且弥散分布,有效解决熔铸态合金热锻后仍无法完全消除的成份偏析和粗大网状碳化物的问题.由于喷射沉积态材料具有良好的组织形态,使得喷射沉积态的强度和冲击韧性比电渣重熔态分别提高了40%和18%.由于喷射沉积态材料中非金属夹杂物的影响,使得材料的冲击韧性值偏低,有待进一步优化工艺,减少夹杂物的含量,提高材料的力学性能.     

Spray-Formed Stainless Steel Matrix Composites with Co-Injected Carbide Particles

In order to develop new types of wear-resistant and corrosion-resistant materials, TiC and VC particles were injected into martensitic stainless steel X46Cr13 during spray forming, respectively. The microstructures of the spray-formed steel matrix composites under different processing conditions were investigated. The mechanisms of interactions between the injected particles and the matrix materials during spray forming and their effects on the microstructures of the composites were discussed and clarified based on experimental and theoretical investigations. The current results show that the injected particles may penetrate into the metallic droplets or adhere to the surface of the droplets and, therefore, are incorporated into the deposits to form metal matrix composites. Substantial heat transfer from superheated metallic melts to the room temperature carbide particles takes place as they are incorporated into the matrix material. The matrix steel solidifies in the vicinity of the carbides due to their chilling effect, and thus, the carbides may be engulfed in the matrix or pushed to the grain boundaries by the solidification fronts. TiC particles essentially retain their shape and size in the steel composites, while VC particles dissolve at least partially in the matrix and reprecipitate or form new phases in the final solidification and cooling stage. The porosity in the deposits increases with the gas to melt ratio (GMR) and the powder to melt ratio (PMR) by increasing atomizing gas pressure and powder feeding rate. Carbide type also affects the porosity of the deposits, because different thermodynamic properties of carbides change the heat dissipation and local solidification behavior of the mixture of matrix material and dissolved carbides. Moreover, the microstructure of the matrix material X46Cr13 is refined considerably with increasing GMR and PMR.     

喷射成形M3型高速钢碳化物组织特征与加热过程演化

采用常规铸造和喷射成形工艺分别制备了M3型高速钢铸坯和沉积坯.利用扫描电子显微镜、X射线能谱和X射线衍射等分析方法对冷却速度对合金的显微组织的影响,加热温度对M3高速钢中M₂C共晶碳化物分解行为的影响,以及热加工变形后铸态和沉积态组织的变化进行了研究.结果表明:铸态合金含有粗大的一次枝晶和M₂C共晶碳化物,而喷射成形沉积坯主要为等轴晶且碳化物细小均匀;冷却速度的提高极大地抑制了碳化物的析出和晶粒长大;加热温度的提高有利于M₂C共晶碳化物分解,过高的温度使得分解后的M₆C长大,不利于合金性能的提高;沉积坯经恰当的预热处理和热变形可以获得理想的变形组织.