Differences in Emerging-Adult Women's Body Image and Sexuality Outcomes According to BMI and Dating Status

ABSTRACT. Emerging adulthood is a crucial time for the development of body image and sexuality concerns among women. We collected self-reported data from 184 women to determine possible differences according to body mass index (BMI) classification and dating status. Multivariate analyses of variance and follow-up univariate analyses of variance were conducted to determine differences in body image and sexuality outcomes according to both BMI (normal weight vs. overweight) and dating status (dating vs. not dating) as well as interaction effects of BMI and dating status. First, results indicated differences between normal-weight and overweight women for body satisfaction, body self-consciousness, and body image avoidance. Overweight women had lower satisfaction, higher self-consciousness, and more avoidance. Differences were also found between women who were dating and those who were not dating for body satisfaction and self-consciousness: Women not dating had lower satisfaction and higher self-consciousness. Second, whereas results indicated that women of varying BMIs did not differ on sexuality outcomes, differences were found according to dating status for sexual attitudes, esteem, and self-schema, such that women not dating had more conservative sexual attitudes, less sexual esteem, and lower self-schemas. No significant interaction effects were found.     

Body image and female sexual functioning and behavior: a review

Knowledge in the research fields of body image and sexuality has significantly increased in the last decade. In this review, data from 57 studies were compiled for a review of empirical evidence regarding the association between sexuality and body image among healthy women. The overall conclusion is that body image issues can affect all domains of sexual functioning. Cognitions and self-consciousness seem to be key factors in understanding the complex relationships between women's body image and sexuality. Body evaluations and cognitions not only interfere with sexual responses and experiences during sexual activity, but also with sexual behavior, sexual avoidance, and risky sexual behavior.     

Limited Role of Body Satisfaction and Body Image Self-Consciousness in Sexual Frequency and Satisfaction in Pregnant Women

This cross-sectional study examined the role of maternal body image and body image self-consciousness in sexual satisfaction and intercourse frequency during pregnancy when controlling for satisfaction with partnership. Pregnant women in their third trimester of pregnancy (N = 150) participated in the study. Body image was measured by the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS) and Body Image Self-Consciousness Scale (BISC), while relationship satisfaction was measured by different subscales of the Perceived Quality of Marital Relationship (PQMR) Scale. Sexual satisfaction was also measured by one of the subscales of the PQMR (Intimate Relationship). The sexual behavior questionnaire comprised questions about frequency of sexual intercourse, desire, and other aspects of sexual functioning as well as the reasons that might prevent women from having intercourse during pregnancy. Findings suggested that satisfaction with body image and body image self-consciousness were related to sexual satisfaction. Nevertheless, other aspects of partnership, such as communication, appeared to be much more important predictors of sexual satisfaction than body image variables. The best predictor of sexual frequency was fear that intercourse might harm the fetus. Implications for education about sexuality issues in pregnancy are discussed.     

Gender differences in the content of cognitive distraction during sex

This study compared 220 college men and 237 college women on two types of self-reported cognitive distraction during sex, performance- and appearance-based. Affect, psychological distress, sexual knowledge, attitudes, fantasies, experiences, body image, satisfaction, and sexual function were assessed with the Derogatis Sexual Functioning Inventory and the Sexual History Form to determine associations with distraction. Between-gender analyses revealed that women reported higher levels of overall and appearance-based distraction than did men, but similar levels of performance-based distraction. Within-gender analyses revealed that women reported as much of one type of distraction as the other, while men reported more performance- than appearance-based distraction. In women, appearance-based distraction was predicted by negative body image, psychological distress, and not being in a relationship, while performance-based distraction was predicted by negative body image, psychological distress, and sexual dissatisfaction. In men, appearance-based distraction was predicted by negative body image, sexual dissatisfaction and not being in a relationship, while performance-based distraction was predicted by negative body image and sexual dissatisfaction. Investigating the content of cognitive distraction may be useful in understanding gender differences in sexual experience and in refining cognitive components of sex therapy.     

Internet Pornography use and Sexual Body Image in a Dutch Sample

Objectives: A commonly attributed cause of sexual body image dissatisfaction is pornography use. This relationship has received little verification. Methods: The relationship between sexual body image dissatisfaction and Internet pornography use was tested using a large-N sample of Dutch respondents. Results/Conclusion: Penis-size dissatisfaction is associated with pornography use. The relationship between pornography use and breast-size dissatisfaction is null. These results support prior speculation and self-reports about the relationship between pornography use and sexual body image among men. These results also support a prior null finding of the relationship between breast-size satisfaction for women and pornography use.     

Attachment Insecurities and Women's Sexual Function and Satisfaction: The Mediating Roles of Sexual Self-Esteem,Sexual Anxiety,and Sexual Assertiveness

We examined the potential role of three mediators—sexual self-esteem, sexual anxiety, and sexual assertiveness—of the association between romantic attachment insecurities (anxiety and avoidance) and two aspects of women's sexual functioning: sexual function and sexual satisfaction. A sample of 556 women aged 18 to 30 agreed to complete an online series of validated questionnaires assessing attachment insecurities and several aspects of sexual functioning. Lower sexual self-esteem and higher sexual anxiety mediated the associations between attachment anxiety and lower sexual function and satisfaction. Lower sexual self-esteem and higher sexual anxiety also partially mediated the links between attachment-related avoidance and the two sexual functioning variables. Sexual assertiveness, however, did not mediate these associations. A significant interaction between attachment anxiety and avoidance was also found to predict sexual satisfaction, with women high in avoidance and low in anxiety being the least satisfied. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical and clinical implications.     

Out of “Objectification Limelight”? The Contribution of Body Appreciation to Sexual Adjustment in Midlife Women

According to objectification theory, women become culturally desexualized during midlife and have the opportunity to let go of their propensity to self-objectify. In young women, self-objectification is negatively related to sexual adjustment. Yet little is known about what could ameliorate this relationship or whether it continues after midlife. Body appreciation (i.e., acceptance and positive regard for the body) has been substantiated as a contributor to improved sexual adjustment in young and older women alike. Hence, this study was designed to examine whether it helps mitigate the deleterious effect of self-objectification on sexual function, satisfaction, and distress in women over the age of 50 (n = 193). Path analyses revealed that self-surveillance is related to body shame and appearance anxiety, the latter of which was related to body self-consciousness during sex. In turn, body self-consciousness during sex mediated the relationship between body shame, appearance anxiety, and all three indicators of sexual adjustment. Furthermore, high body appreciation attenuated the negative associations between self-objectification constructs, body self-consciousness during sex, and sexual satisfaction and distress. Overall, this study supports the use of objectification theory in midlife and older women. Sex therapy interventions that incorporate mindfulness and body appreciation principles are discussed.     

The Impact of Body Dissatisfaction on Distressing Sexual Difficulties Among Men and Women: the Mediator Role of Cognitive Distraction

Research has demonstrated a negative impact of cognitive distraction on sexual activity, and body dissatisfaction has been associated with less satisfying and fewer sexual activities. In the current study we examined the extent to which cognitive distraction, based on body appearance and sexual performance, mediated the impact of body dissatisfaction on sexual difficulties among women and men. A sample of 493 women (M_age = 30.61) and 595 men (M_age = 37.90) completed an online survey. Women reported significantly higher levels of distressing sexual difficulties, significantly more body dissatisfaction, and greater cognitive distraction based on appearance than men. In contrast, men reported higher cognitive distraction based on performance than women. A path analysis model indicated that, for men, only cognitive distraction based on performance mediated the effects of body dissatisfaction on distressing sexual difficulties, and the mediation was only partial as body dissatisfaction had a significant direct effect on distressing sexual difficulties. In contrast, among women, both appearance-based cognitive distraction and performance-based cognitive distraction fully mediated the effects of body dissatisfaction on distressing sexual difficulties.     

Body Image Development and Sexual Satisfaction: A Prospective Study From Adolescence to Adulthood

The aim of the current study was to explore whether developmental trajectories of body satisfaction from adolescence to young adulthood predicted measures of sexual satisfaction in young adulthood, even when controlling for important covariates such as gender, weight development, relationship status, mental health, and frequency of sexual intercourse and masturbation. Data were collected from a population-based prospective cohort of Norwegian adolescents (n = 2,587) over a period of 13 years in four waves (1992, 1994, 1999, and 2005; mean age = 14.9 in 1992, 57.3% women). Latent growth curves were estimated for body satisfaction and body mass index (BMI). Men reported higher sexual satisfaction, sexual activity, baseline body satisfaction, and BMI than women. The developmental trajectories revealed a slight increase in body satisfaction and BMI from adolescence to young adulthood in both genders. Moreover, structural equation models showed that baseline body satisfaction in both genders predicted sexual satisfaction as a young adult, independent of relationship status and frequency of sexual activity. Neither the development of BMI nor of body satisfaction predicted sexual satisfaction. The results elucidate the vital role of body satisfaction in sexual satisfaction in adults and the importance of addressing body dissatisfaction in childhood.     

Factors that Influence Body Dissatisfaction: Comparisons across Culture and Gender

This study examined the relationship between attachment style, differentiation of self, and body dissatisfaction across culture and gender. The sample consisted of 115 Caucasians (85 females, 29 males) with a mean age of 22.2 years (SD = 5.81) and 119 Chinese individuals (93 females, 26 males) with a mean age of 22.8 years (SD = 2.35). Participants completed online self-report measures of body satisfaction, attachment style, and differentiation of self. Results indicated that high attachment anxiety and less differentiation of self were associated with lower body satisfaction for women but not for men of either cultural group. There were no significant cultural or gender differences in terms of overall body satisfaction; however, there were differences with regard to preoccupation with weight and self-perceived weight. It was concluded that culture had little impact on body dissatisfaction in the present sample but that the factors that shape body dissatisfaction differed by gender.     

Sexual Orientation Moderates the Effect of Gender on Body Satisfaction: Results From a National Probability Sample

Body image concerns typically affect women more so than men, but there is reason to believe that this pattern may depend on sexual orientation. The present study examined differences in levels of body satisfaction among men and women who identified as heterosexual, plurisexual (bisexual and pansexual), gay, and lesbian, using data from a large-scale national probability sample from New Zealand (N = 17,005). As expected, heterosexual men reported higher body satisfaction than heterosexual women. Gay and plurisexual men reported lower body satisfaction than heterosexual men. Gay men also reported lower body satisfaction than lesbian women, and did not differ significantly from heterosexual and plurisexual women. Ratings of heterosexual, plurisexual, and lesbian women’s body satisfaction did not differ significantly. Results held when adjusting for a range of demographic covariates (including age and BMI), and highlight the importance of examining the psychological and health outcomes associated with poor body image among gay men. These findings emphasize the relevance of sexual orientation in understanding men’s body image-related issues.     

The influence of dual-identity development on the psychosocial functioning of African-American gay and bisexual men

To examine the influence of racial-ethnic and sexual identity development on the psychosocial functioning of African-American gay and bisexual men (AAGBM), 174 AAGBM completed questionnaire packets designed to assess their levels of racial-ethnic and sexual identity development, self-esteem, social support, male gender role stress, HIV prevention self-efficacy, psychological distress, and life satisfaction. The results indicate that AAGBM who possess more positive (i.e., integrated) self-identification as being African American and gay reported higher levels of self-esteem, HIV prevention self-efficacy, stronger social support networks, greater levels of life satisfaction, and lower levels of male gender role and psychological distress than their counterparts who reported less positive (i.e., less well integrated) African American and gay identity development. Although higher levels of racial-ethnic identity development were associated with greater levels of life satisfaction, sexual identity development was not.     

Sexuality in Older Adults (65+)—An Overview of The Recent Literature,Part 2: Body Image and Sexual Satisfaction

Objectives: the aim of the paper is to provide an overview of the literature published 2005-2015 on sexual satisfaction and body image in older adults. Method: A narrative literature search using the PsycINFO database was conducted. Results: Although women in general seem less satisfied with their bodies than men, particularly in sexual contexts, older women appear to be less vulnerable to body-related dissatisfaction than younger women. Despite the age-specific dynamics of sexual satisfaction and sexual well-being, which parallel age-related decrease in the frequency of sexual activity, research findings from different countries show that substantial proportions of aging men and women are satisfied with their sex life. There is some limited evidence that this proportion may be increasing across cohorts. Gender differences in factors that influence sexual satisfaction among older adults appear marginal. Conclusion: Older age can affect sexual satisfaction on individual, interpersonal, and culture-related levels. Future research in older adults' sexuality should focus on sexual well-being in women who are without partners, sexual satisfaction among aging lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals and couples, the relationship between religiosity and sexual satisfaction, and employ a comparative, cross-cultural approach.     

Masturbation as a Means of Achieving Sexual Health

Abstract

Research on masturbation has indicated that, contrary to traditional beliefs, masturbation has been found to be a common sexual behavior and linked to indicators of sexual health. While there are no general indicators of ill health associated with masturbation, it can be powerfully negative or positive for many individuals. As an example, it is widely used in sex therapy as a means of improving the sexual health of the individual and/or relationship. Promoting masturbation as a means of a public health strategy for sexual health is highly controversial; however, there are arguments and evidence that suggest that this may be an important part of any public health approach to improving sexual health. There is a need for more research on the impact of masturbation on self-esteem, body image, sexual functioning and sexual satisfaction and methods for using masturbation to promote sexual health. There is also a need for more of a theoretical approach to the formation of hypotheses to be tested.     

Non‐erotic thoughts: Content and relation to sexual functioning and sexual satisfaction

We examined the possible range of content of non‐erotic thoughts experienced during typical sexual activities with a partner. Undergraduate men (n = 47) and women (n = 50) were administered a measure of non‐erotic thought content, frequency, and anxiety, along with measures of sexual attitude, satisfaction, and functioning. Men were more likely to report performance‐related thoughts, and women were more likely to report thoughts about body image. However, men and women were equally likely to report thoughts about the external consequences of the activity (e.g., pregnancy, being caught) and the emotional consequences of the activity (e.g., morality, implications of the activity for the relationship). Women reported that their thoughts occurred more frequently and caused more anxiety. Greater thought frequency and greater anxiety over thoughts were associated with poorer sexual functioning for both men and women. For women, greater frequency of and anxiety evoked by thoughts was associated with lower sexual satisfaction. These data provide modest support for cognitive‐behavioral models of sexual dysfunction and indicate the importance of both examining a broad range of non‐erotic thought content and taking gender into account when applying these models to understanding and treating sexual difficulties.     

Sexual Functioning Following Elective Hysterectomy: The Role of Surgical and Psychosocial Variables

In this article, two studies were conducted to investigate the surgical and psychosocial correlates of women's post-hysterectomy sexual functioning. In Study 1, sexual functioning was measured in an online convenience sample of 65 women who had undergone elective hysterectomy. Results suggested that most women experienced improved sexual functioning after their hysterectomy. Women who underwent hysterectomy to treat endometriosis reported less improvement in sexual functioning as compared to women who had hysterectomies for other indications, and women who had abdominal hysterectomies reported less improvement in sexual functioning as compared to women who had vaginal hysterectomies. Sexual functioning post-hysterectomy was associated with psychosocial variables, particularly body esteem and relationship quality. In Study 2, sexual functioning was investigated at two time points three to five months apart in a sample of 14 women who reported developing sexual problems following their elective hysterectomies. Results suggested that, among women suffering from post-hysterectomy sexual dysfunction, sexual pain and difficulty with orgasm increased over time.     

Body Image and Sexuality in Indonesian Adults with a Disorder of Sex Development (DSD)

In Indonesia, disorders of sex development (DSDs) are not well recognized and medical care for affected individuals is scarce. Consequently, many patients live with ambiguous genitalia and appearance. We compared reported outcomes on body image, sexual functioning, and sexual orientation of 39 adults with DSDs (aged 18 to 41) and 39 healthy controls matched for gender, age, and residential setting (urban, suburban, rural). Differences in gender and treatment status (treated or untreated) were also explored. On body image, adults with DSDs reported dissatisfaction with sex-related body parts. Compared to the matched controls, women with DSDs reported greater sexual distress, and men with DSDs reported lower erectile and ejaculation frequencies, and more dissatisfaction with sexual life but not with sexual desire and activities. Men with DSDs who had undergone genital surgery reported higher erectile and ejaculation frequencies than untreated men. More women than men in the DSDs group reported a nonexclusive heterosexual orientation. DSDs and infertility had a great impact on sexuality. Fear of ostracism complicated DSD acceptance. Findings were compared to those of Western studies. Based on these results, education about DSDs and their psychosexual consequences may help reduce the sexual distress and problems in adults with DSDs and improve quality of life.     

The Impact of Aging on Human Sexual Activity and Sexual Desire

This article empirically studies how much aging modifies human sexual activity and sexual desire, and what the most important determinants in this change are. The analyses are based on 2 representative national sex surveys conducted in Finland in the 1990s. As a result of female widowhood, aging men had a higher incidence of sexual intercourse compared with aging women; and in relationships, women were more likely than men to report lack of sexual desire. In regression analysis, age was a predictor of sexual activity but not of sexual desire, when controlling for the impact of other factors. Relationship duration did not play an important role in sexual activity or sexual desire when controlling for a number of other variables. Sexual desire, valuing sexuality, and a healthy partner were important to female sexual activity; and high sexual self-esteem, good health, and active sexual history were important to male sexual activity. To keep up their sexual desire, both men and women needed good health, good sexual functioning, positive sexual self-esteem, and a sexually skilful partner.     

Non-erotic thoughts: content and relation to sexual functioning and sexual satisfaction

We examined the possible range of content of non-erotic thoughts experienced during typical sexual activities with a partner. Undergraduate men (n = 47) and women (n = 50) were administered a measure of non-erotic thought content, frequency, and anxiety, along with measures of sexual attitude, satisfaction, and functioning. Men were more likely to report performance-related thoughts, and women were more likely to report thoughts about body image. However, men and women were equally likely to report thoughts about the external consequences of the activity (e.g., pregnancy, being caught) and the emotional consequences of the activity (e.g., morality, implications of the activity for the relationship). Women reported that their thoughts occurred more frequently and caused more anxiety. Greater thought frequency and greater anxiety over thoughts were associated with poorer sexual functioning for both men and women. For women, greater frequency of and anxiety evoked by thoughts was associated with lower sexual satisfaction. These data provide modest support for cognitive-behavioral models of sexual dysfunction and indicate the importance of both examining a broad range of non-erotic thought content and taking gender into account when applying these models to understanding and treating sexual difficulties.     

Relationship between body image and body mass index in college men

OBJECTIVE AND PARTICIPANTS: The authors examined cognitive and affective dimensions of body image of a randomized sample of 188 college men on the basis of body mass index (BMI). METHODS: They conducted chi-square tests and ANOVAs to determine differences between 4 BMI groups (underweight, normal weight, overweight, and obese) on demographics and body image measures. RESULTS: The authors found significant differences in regard to total body image (p < .001), weight or shape concern (p < .001), and body dissatisfaction (p < .001). BMI was significantly correlated with negative body image. Overweight and obese participants reported significantly higher levels of negative body image than did normal- and underweight participants. Overweight participants reported significantly higher weight and shape concerns than did underweight, normal-weight, and obese participants. In regard to body dissatisfaction, underweight, overweight, and obese participants reported significantly higher levels of body dissatisfaction than that reported by normal-weight participants. CONCLUSIONS: BMI may be an important factor in identifying potential body image disorders in college-aged men.