PREDICTION AND EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF CUTTING FORCES DURING MACHINING OF PRECISION EXTERNAL THREADS

External thread cutting is a complex 3-D process in which the cutting conditions vary over the thread cutter profile. It is accepted as a mature; however, heavily experience based technology and there are few academic work published. Determining the cutting forces during machining is crucial to explain formation of the surface layer, residual stresses, selection of the most appropriate machine tool and optimizing the process. This investigation is an attempt to predict thread cutting forces by dividing the thread chip into three parts, one thread root and two side faces. Variation of the cutting parameters including the shear angle, mean cutting temperature and friction force on the flank face of the tool along the thread tool root and sides are determined. In the thread root and sides, chip compression ratios for the V-shaped single piece and separately cut chip zones are measured and cutting forces are calculated and compared for precision metric thread cutting on a SAE 4340 steel bar.     

工件材料的各向异性对超精密切削变形及已加工表面粗糙度的影响

研究了单晶铜超精密切削时，工件材料的晶体取向对切削变形及表面质量的影响。切削试验结果表明，剪切角、切削力，表面粗糙度随晶体切削方向的不同而有明显的变化。根据超精密切削中切屑形成过程的晶体塑性力学模型，分析了剪切角与切削力随晶体取向的变化规律。理论分析结果与试验结果相符。     

MACHINING OF CORTICAL BONE: SIMULATIONS OF CHIP FORMATION MECHANICS USING METAL MACHINING MODELS

This paper investigates chip formation in the machining of cortical bone and the application of isotropic elastic-plastic material models with a pressure dependent yield stress and a strain path dependent failure strain law to finite element calculations to predict observed behaviour. It is shown that a range of models can be created that result in segmented chip formations and a range of specific cutting forces similar to those observed experimentally. Results from the simulations provide an explanation for differences in the ratio of thrust to cutting forces observed between previous experimental studies, namely that the cutting tools used may have had different edge sharpness or degree of damage induced by the material removal process. Measurements of edge profiles from one of these studies support that explanation and emphasize the importance of tool toughness in maintaining efficient cutting of bone.     

ENHANCING THE DEPTH OF CUT IN ABRASIVE WATERJET CUTTING OF ALUMINA CERAMICS BY USING MULTIPASS CUTTING WITH NOZZLE OSCILLATION

An experimental investigation is presented to increase the depth of cut in abrasive waterjet (AWJ) cutting of alumina ceramics by introducing a new cutting technique combining multipass operations with controlled nozzle oscillation. Plausible trends of the depth of cut per pass and total depth of cut with respect to the number of passes and the parameters in each pass are discussed. It shows that cutting with nozzle oscillation can significantly increase the depth of cut in the single-pass cutting mode, while further gains in the depth of cut can be made by using multipass cutting with nozzle oscillation. While multipass cutting can be used to increase the total depth of cut for machining thicker materials, it has been found that an average increase of 50.8% in the total depth of cut can be expected by using multipass cutting with nozzle oscillation as compared to single-pass cutting without nozzle oscillation within the same cutting time. Recommendations are finally made as a practical guide for the selection of process parameters in multipass AWJ cutting of alumina ceramics with controlled nozzle oscillation.     

基于五坐标数控圆柱形刀具线接触加工自由曲面的几何学原理

从微分几何学的角度,探讨了在五坐标数控机床上采用圆柱形刀具线接触加工自由曲面的几何学原理,分析了刀具面与被加工曲面二阶密切的条件。通过对二次型半正定的判别,求得了刀具轴线的位置,给出了点邻域内三阶离差的计算公式,证明了圆柱形刀具与被加工曲面的密切条件等价于刀具轴线与被加工曲面的等距面的密切条件,通过实例验证了所提方法的正确性。     

LUBRICATION MECHANISMS OF LN2 IN ECOLOGICAL CRYOGENIC MACHINING

ABSTRACT

Cryogenic machining is considered an environmentally safe alternative to conventional machining where cutting fluid is used. In cryogenic machining, liquid nitrogen (LN2) is well recognized as an effective coolant due to its low temperature, however, its lubrication effect is less well known. Our previous studies of the change in cutting forces, tool wear, chip microstructure, and friction coefficient indicate a possible lubrication effect of LN2. This paper proposes two mechanisms on how LN2 can provide lubrication in the cutting process. To verify these proposed LN2 mechanisms and distinguish them, idealized disk-flat contact tests were performed. A low temperature can alter the material properties and change the friction coefficient between the specimens. However, from the test results, this lubrication mechanism was dependent on the material pairs. An uncoated carbide insert with a low carbon steel or titanium alloy disk test showed reduction of friction under LN2 cooling, but a coated insert increased the friction force. LN2 injection to form a physical barrier or hydrodynamic effect between two bodies is always effective in reducing the friction force.     

LUBRICATION MECHANISMS OF LN2 IN ECOLOGICAL CRYOGENIC MACHINING

Cryogenic machining is considered an environmentally safe alternative to conventional machining where cutting fluid is used. In cryogenic machining, liquid nitrogen (LN2) is well recognized as an effective coolant due to its low temperature, however, its lubrication effect is less well known. Our previous studies of the change in cutting forces, tool wear, chip microstructure, and friction coefficient indicate a possible lubrication effect of LN2. This paper proposes two mechanisms on how LN2 can provide lubrication in the cutting process. To verify these proposed LN2 mechanisms and distinguish them, idealized disk-flat contact tests were performed. A low temperature can alter the material properties and change the friction coefficient between the specimens. However, from the test results, this lubrication mechanism was dependent on the material pairs. An uncoated carbide insert with a low carbon steel or titanium alloy disk test showed reduction of friction under LN2 cooling, but a coated insert increased the friction force. LN2 injection to form a physical barrier or hydrodynamic effect between two bodies is always effective in reducing the friction force.     

基于三角网格曲面模型的刀位轨迹计算方法

离散三角网格模型在CAD/CAM中应用很广,但针对该模型的刀位轨迹自动生成算法并不多见。在正确重建网格模型的拓扑关系基础上,给出了新的曲面几何特性分析方法,并提出了具有特色的精确的刀位轨迹计算方法,克服了直接由网格模型求交计算刀位方式存在的精度问题。测试结果显示,该方法简捷、可靠,能够达到实用化要求,并显著提高了刀位计算精度和加工效果。     

EFFECT OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC ORIENTATION ON CUTTING FORCES AND SURFACE FINISH IN DUCTILE CUTTING OF KDP CRYSTALS

In order to investigate the influence of material anisotropy in ductile cutting of Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KDP) crystals, experiments of face cutting of (001) plane of KDP crystals are carried out by using an ultra-precision lathe with a single point diamond tool. The cutting forces, surface finish, and surface roughness in all crystallographic orientations of the machined surface are measured, and a power spectrum analysis method is used to reveal the cutting force patterns. The experimental results show that the cutting forces and surface roughness vary greatly with different crystallographic orientations of KDP crystal, and that amplitude variation of cutting forces and surface finish is closely related with the cutting parameter of the maximum undeformed chip thickness. With the maximum undeformed chip thickness below 30 nm, the amplitude variation of cutting force and surface finish is minimized, and a super-smooth surface with consistent surface finish in all the crystallographic orientations can be achieved. The surface roughness is 2.698 nm (Ra) measured by Atomic Force Microscope (AFM). These findings provide criteria for achieving a large-scale KDP crystal with consistent super-smooth surface using ductile cutting technology.     

ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING OF CURVILINEAR SURFACES

In this work a theoretical analysis of the ECM process of curvilinear surfaces has been presented. The purpose of this analysis is to predict the shape evolution of the machined object using: a shaping surface of small thickness (flat issue) and a blade of hydrodynamic machine (quasi-three dimensional issue). ECM modeling involves prediction of the machined surface shape evolution and distribution of physical-chemical parameters inside the interelectrode gap. The problem has been solved with the use of an equation of the electrolyte and hydrogen mixture (liquid and gas) flat flow inside the interelectrode gap. After introducing simplifying assumptions for the flow, void fraction distribution and the gap thickness, the equations were solved partly analytically, partly numerically. The obtained solutions for assigned parameters of the machining process are presented graphically in the form of distributions of: static pressure, the mixture flow rate, temperature, void fraction and evolution of the machined surface shape evolution.     

HIGH FREQUENCY MEASUREMENTS OF CUTTING FORCES IN MILLING BY INVERSE FILTERING

Accurate estimates of cutting forces are important in the evaluation of different cutting tool geometries and concepts. However, dynamic influences from the measurement system affect the result, which can make the obtained cutting force data erroneous and misleading. This article presents a method to obtain an inverse filter which compensates for the dynamic influences of the measurement system. Using this approach, unwanted dynamic effects of the measurement system can be counteracted, making it possible to retain information related to the cutting forces contained in the high frequency region. The advantage of the proposed method is illustrated by comparing simulated, inverse- and low-pass filtered forces to unfiltered forces under different cutting conditions. The results show that inverse filtering increases the usable frequency range of the force dynamometer and thereby provide more reliable results compared to both low-pass and unfiltered forces.     

NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF LASER-ASSISTED MACHINING OF INCONEL 718

A numerical investigation of laser-assisted machining for Inconel 718 is presented. This study is based on a three-dimensional finite element model, which takes into account a new constitutive law of Inconel 718 as well as friction and heat transfer models at the tool-chip interface that are developed at the Aerospace Manufacturing Technology Centre (AMTC), of the National Research Council of Canada (NRC), Canada. The material flow stress is described as a function of the strain, the strain rate, and the temperature. The friction model accounts for the sticking and the sliding regions observed experimentally. The formulation of the heat transfer model is based on combining contact mechanics analysis with the solution of the thermal contact problem. The laser beam is modeled as a moving heat source, which is experimentally calibrated. To validate the three-dimensional finite element model, laser-assisted machining experiments were designed and carried out under different cutting conditions. The predicted cutting force and chip thickness are compared with the experimental results. The temperature, stress, strain, and strain rate fields in the primary deformation zone are investigated in order to reveal the plastic deformation process under laser-assisted machining operations.     

高速切削30CrNi3MoV淬硬钢切屑形成机理的试验研究

通过30CrNi3MoV淬硬钢的高速切削试验,观察和测量不同切削条件下切屑形态的演变过程、锯齿状切屑形成的临界切削条件、切削力.结果表明,切削速度和刀具前角是影响切屑形态和切削力的主要因素,随着切削速度的提高,在某一临界切削速度下,切屑形态由带状屑转变为锯齿状切屑,随着刀具前角由正前角逐渐变为负前角,临界切削速度明显减小,当锯齿状切屑形成时,切削力大幅度降低.使用金属切削过程中绝热剪切临界切削条件判据对锯齿状切屑形成临界切削速度预测的结果表明,锯齿状切屑形成的根本原因是主剪切区内发生周期性的绝热剪切断裂.     

EFFECT OF SOME MODIFICATIONS TO OXLEY'S MACHINING THEORY AND THE APPLICABILITY OF DIFFERENT MATERIAL MODELS

Oxley's machining theory has recently been extended[1] to accept material property inputs in the form of widely used constitutive models such as the Johnson-Cook and MTS material models. In the process, additional modifications have been made to the model to improve its self-consistency. For instance, the shear force is obtained from the total work of deformation, thereby eliminating the unknown parameter η, and the hydrostatic pressure at the tool-chip interface is calculated considering the gradient in temperature in addition to the gradient in strain. This study is aimed at understanding the effect of these modifications separate from the changes due to the introduction of the new material models by comparing results obtained using Oxley's original model to that obtained with the above modifications. We also compare results obtained using different constitutive models for AISI 1045 to the experimental results of the “Assessment of Machining Models” effort.     

EFFECT OF SOME MODIFICATIONS TO OXLEY'S MACHINING THEORY AND THE APPLICABILITY OF DIFFERENT MATERIAL MODELS

Oxley's machining theory has recently been extended[1] Adibi-Sedeh, A. H., Madhavan, V. and Bahr, B. 2002. Extension of Oxley's analysis of machining to use different material models. Submitted to ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering [Google Scholar] to accept material property inputs in the form of widely used constitutive models such as the Johnson–Cook and MTS material models. In the process, additional modifications have been made to the model to improve its self-consistency. For instance, the shear force is obtained from the total work of deformation, thereby eliminating the unknown parameter η, and the hydrostatic pressure at the tool-chip interface is calculated considering the gradient in temperature in addition to the gradient in strain. This study is aimed at understanding the effect of these modifications separate from the changes due to the introduction of the new material models by comparing results obtained using Oxley's original model to that obtained with the above modifications. We also compare results obtained using different constitutive models for AISI 1045 to the experimental results of the “Assessment of Machining Models” effort.     

INVESTIGATION OF SIZE-EFFECTS IN MACHINING WITH GEOMETRICALLY DEFINED CUTTING EDGES

The miniaturization of cutting processes shows process specific size-effects like the exponential increase of the specific cutting force k_c with decreasing depth of cut h. Experiments were carried out in an orthogonal turning process. The influence of different process parameters on the results was investigated separately to identify process specific size-effects. Two materials were studied: a normalized steel AISI 1045 and an annealed AISI O2. To complement the experiments, parameter variations were performed in two-dimensional, thermo-mechanically coupled finite element simulations using a rate-dependent material model and analyzed by similarity mechanics. The influence of rounded cutting-edges on the chip formation process and the plastic deformation of the generated surface were determined numerically. The complex physical effects in micro-cutting were analyzed successfully by finite element simulations and compared to experiments.     

INVESTIGATION OF SIZE-EFFECTS IN MACHINING WITH GEOMETRICALLY DEFINED CUTTING EDGES

The miniaturization of cutting processes shows process specific size-effects like the exponential increase of the specific cutting force k _c with decreasing depth of cut h. Experiments were carried out in an orthogonal turning process. The influence of different process parameters on the results was investigated separately to identify process specific size-effects. Two materials were studied: a normalized steel AISI 1045 and an annealed AISI O2. To complement the experiments, parameter variations were performed in two-dimensional, thermo-mechanically coupled finite element simulations using a rate-dependent material model and analyzed by similarity mechanics. The influence of rounded cutting-edges on the chip formation process and the plastic deformation of the generated surface were determined numerically. The complex physical effects in micro-cutting were analyzed successfully by finite element simulations and compared to experiments.     

ANALYSIS ON THE SPINNING FORCES IN FLEXIBLE SPINNING OF CONES

Flexible spinning is a new type of spinning process where spin-forming is performedwithout using a mandrel. Combining shearing and rolling processes, the calculation formulas of thespinning forces in flexible spinning of cones is presented. The effects of the main processing parame-ters, such as gripping force G applied to the blank by the inner roller, the feed rate of rollers f and theroundness radius of outer roller r_o, on the spinning forces are analyzed experimentally and theoreti-cally.     

CALCULATION OF THE SPECIFIC CUTTING COEFFICIENTS AND GEOMETRICAL ASPECTS IN SCULPTURED SURFACE MACHINING

This article presents a method for obtaining the shear and ploughing specific cutting coefficients for a ball-end milling cutting force model. Thus, by using the proposed calculation method, the need for introducing variable shear cutting coefficients has been identified. This fact is due to the dependency among the specific cutting coefficients and the cutting edge inclination angle, which is variable in ball-end mills. Linear, quadratic and cubic polynomial shear cutting coefficients have been calculated, and the degree of adjustment obtained in each approach has been analyzed. At the same time, the expressions of the ploughing specific coefficients have been analyzed. The proposed calculation method has been applied to the following materials: a 7075-T6 aluminum alloy and a 52HRC AISI H13 tool steel. The results obtained from the validation demonstrate how the obtained coefficients are capable of predicting cutting forces over a wide range of cutting conditions. Finally, the results from applying the coefficients calculated in horizontal slot milling tests have been introduced in a model capable of calculating cutting forces in slope milling cases, which validates the calculation method proposed as a generic method for estimation of cutting coefficients.