Gender differences in using alcohol to cope with depression.

To examine gender differences in alcohol consumption as a function of mood and expectancies, 32 nondepressed and 32 moderately depressed male and female social drinkers were compared during a 15-minute taste-rating session. Results indicated that depressed subjects tended to consume more alcohol than nondepressed subjects and men consumed more alcohol than women. Depressed men drank more and drank more per sip than all other subjects. Three depressed men consumed more than all other subjects. Depression and anxiety decreased over time for all subjects. However, a Sex x Depression x Time interaction showed that only depressed men and nondepressed women were substantially less depressed after drinking. The nondepressed women, compared to the depressed men, consumed less alcohol and reported a greater increase in positive mood. Men expected more global positive effects from drinking than women, suggesting the tension reduction hypothesis (TRH) is mediated by gender-specific expectancies.     

Social influences on human ethanol consumption in an analogue situation

Thirty-six male college students, all normal drinkers, were randomly assigned to six experimental conditions in a 3 x 2 completely randomized factorial design which examined the influence of various social conditions on subjects' alcohol consumption. The three social conditions, as determined by the presence or absence of an accomplice, were co-action, audience facilitation, or individual performance. The second factor was whether the accomplice was either a “heavy” or “light” consumer of wine during a taste test analogue task. Subjects who were exposed to a heavy consumptive accomplice in the co-action social condition drank significantly (P < 0.05) more wine than all other subjects, but the other groups did not differ significantly from one another. Thus, imitation alone cannot account for the differences in alcohol consumption observed in previous research of this type. A more parsimonious interpretation of the findings is that increased consumption resulted from co-action, although an alternative explanation in terms of competitive drinking cannot be excluded.     

Effects of peer majority on drinking rate

Two male and 2 female subjects drank beer with 12 confederate models, 6 male and 6 female, in a simulated tavern. Three confederates, either 2 male and 1 female or 2 female and 1 male were assigned to each subject and drank concurrently with that subject. A single subject repeated measures reversal design was used. Condition 1 indicated subject baseline drinking rate. Interventions indicated confederates drinking rate. Each confederate served as a high consumption and a low consumption model. Additionally, each confederate served as a single confederate as well as onehalf of a pair of confederates. Interventions were seperated by returns to baseline. Subjects consistently matched the drinking rate of the pair ofconfederates regardless of whether these confederates modeled a high or low consumption rate and regardless of whether the subjects or confederates were male or female. Implications and suggestions for further research on modelling were presented.     

湖南省四地区农村居民饮酒行为调查

目的:描述湖南省四地区农村居民饮酒情况。方法:采用随机、多阶段整群抽样的方法,使用定式检查问卷调查湖南四地区(衡阳、怀化、张家界以及益阳)农村社区中18713人(15-65a)的酒精使用情况。结果:男、女及整个样本月饮酒率分别为46.8%、3.8%和26.7%,年饮酒率分别是55.6%、8.9%和33.7%。整个样本人群(15-65a)年饮酒量为3.03L±s8.35L纯酒精,农村男性饮酒量为女性的39.7倍;饮酒者年平均消耗纯酒精8.97L±s15.40L,男、女性年饮酒量分别是10·00L±s17.59L、1.60L±s4.64L。56.1%(3540/6314)的饮酒者每周饮酒1次或以下,16.2%(1024/6314)的人每天饮用。低、高度白酒仍是农村地区主要饮酒种类。结论:湖南农村四地区的饮酒率和饮酒量均存在较大的性别差异;尽管饮酒率与全国相比,处于较低水平,但饮酒者的酒精消耗量,尤其是农村男性的饮酒量,仍不容乐观。作者预计随着经济的发展,社会交往的增多,农村饮酒人数和酒精的消费量还会进一步增加,对农村地区有关酒精的知识宣传和酒精使用控制上亟待进一步加强。     

Social approval and facilitation in predicting modeling effects in alcohol consumption

Purpose: An important question for alcohol abuse prevention and treatment is whether individuals with high needs for social approval, or those who drink heavily in social contexts, are particularly vulnerable to modeling effects in alcohol consumption. Methods: Male and female heavy social drinkers (N=202), as distinguished by these cognitive and situational variables, participated in a multisession dyadic modeling effects study along with a same-sex confederate model who exhibited alternating patterns of heavy and light consumption in an experimental barroom. Results: Subjects with high needs for social approval, and those who tend to drink heavily in social contexts, were particularly vulnerable to imitating directional changes in modeled drinking levels across heavy and light consumption experimental sessions. Additionally, modeling effects were revealed, including reductions in drinking levels, regardless of individual characteristics such as demographics or levels of intoxication achieved on “usual drinking occasions.” Implications: Findings suggest that individuals exhibiting high needs for social approval, and those who tend to drink heavily in social contexts, may benefit from (1) befriending lower risk models and (2) prevention and/or intervention efforts to reduce risk for substance use by reducing excessive needs for social approval and/or reducing exposure to social contexts where heavy drinking and related risk behavior is normative.     

Exploring Filipino American drinking behavior

The purpose of this article was to explore characteristics distinguishing levels of drinking by Filipino Americans. A sample of 298 adult Filipinos was interviewed using a schedule based on a national study of drinking behavior and attitudes. Approximately 50% of the female sample were abstainers while 80% of the men were drinkers. Heavy drinking was almost exclusively a male activity. Thus, two models of Filipino drinking were examined. Logistic regression was used to identify social factors distinguishing female drinkers from abstainers. A second model clarified the influence of similar characteristics on male Filipinos who drank limited amounts of alcohol and those who drank heavily. The only variable significant in both models was regular participation in religious service.     

Effects of alcohol cues on cognitive processing in heavy and light drinkers.

The effects of alcohol-related visual cues on cognitive processing in heavy and light social drinkers were assessed. Participants were exposed to either alcohol or control cues while they completed a cognitively demanding emotional Stroop task that used alcohol-related and control words as potential distracters. Heavy drinkers exposed to alcohol cues had significantly slower reaction times on the Stroop task than: (a) heavy drinkers exposed to control cues; and (b) light drinkers exposed to either alcohol or control cues. Results indicate that the effects of alcohol cues on automatic cognitive processes previously found in dependent drinkers' also occur in social drinkers. The magnitude of these effects varies directly with social drinkers' level of habitual alcohol use.     

Readiness to change drinking among heavy-drinking college students

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine motivation to reduce alcohol consumption among heavy-drinking college students. Specific goals were to test the factor structure of the Stages of Change Readiness and Treatment Eagerness Scale (SOCRATES); present normative SOCRATES data for collegiate heavy drinkers; present a heuristic, using SOCRATES scales to determine stage of readiness to change heavy-drinking; and compare students at different stages of change on demographic and drinking variables. METHOD: Participants were 278 (187 female) undergraduates who reported at least one episode of heavy drinking within the past 3 months. Students completed the SOCRATES and other questionnaires that assessed current and past drinking and demographics. RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis provided modest support for the SOCRATES factor structure. Students were classified according to the transtheoretical model of change (67% Precontemplation, 20% Contemplation and 13% Action). Contemplators drank more often, consumed more alcohol, reported more heavy drinking episodes and experienced more alcohol consequences than the other groups. CONCLUSIONS: Two thirds of the heavy-drinking college students did not recognize a need to reduce their alcohol consumption, despite evidence of tolerance and negative drinking consequences.     

Stressful events,personality, and mood disturbance: gender differences in alcoholics and problem drinkers

The present study examined relationships among stressful events, personality characteristics, and affective status in males and females of various alcohol drinking patterns. We examined a total of 154 participants from three distinct alcohol subgroups: alcohol dependent, problem drinker, and light social drinker. These subjects did not meet criteria for any concurrent nonalcohol comorbid psychiatric disorder. The study included an alcohol quantity-frequency interview and self-report questionnaires on stressful life events, depressive symptoms, trait anxiety, and personality characteristics. Results showed female alcoholics reported significantly greater depression, anxiety, and neuroticism compared to their male counterparts (and all other drinking groups). Female problem drinkers reported significantly greater depressive symptoms and health-related stressful events compared to male problem drinkers and the light drinkers. In contrast, male problem drinkers did not show elevations on these dimensions and more closely resembled light drinkers, of whom no gender differences were found. The findings support theories suggesting a "telescoping" of complications, health-related stress, and mood dysfunction in women at a lower threshold level of alcohol consumption compared to their male counterparts.     

The prevalence of alcohol consumption and heavy drinking among people with HIV in the United States: results from the HIV Cost and Services Utilization Study

OBJECTIVE: To establish population-based estimates of the prevalence of any alcohol consumption and heavy drinking among individuals who tested positive for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and to identify the factors associated with alcohol consumption and heavy drinking in this population. METHOD: Data from the HIV Cost and Services Utilization Study (HCSUS), a national probability survey of HIV-infected adults receiving medical care in the U.S. in early 1996 (N = 2,864: 2,017 men, 847 women), were used to estimate the prevalence of any alcohol consumption and heavy drinking. Logistic regression was used to identify independent influences of sociodemographic, health status, and substance use variables on alcohol consumption and heavy drinking. RESULTS: Approximately 53% of persons in care for HIV reported drinking alcohol in the preceding month and 8% were classified as heavy drinkers. Of those who drank, 15% were heavy drinkers. The odds of heavy drinking were significantly higher among users of cocaine or heroin and significantly lower among the better educated and those with an AIDS-defining illness. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol consumption is common among people in care for HIV, with rates of heavy drinking almost twice those found in the general population. Heavy drinking is especially higher among individuals with lower educational levels and users of cocaine or heroin.     

Social drinking history,behavioral tolerance and the expectation of alcohol

This research tested the hypothesis that a compensatory response to cues for alcohol contributes to the greater behavioral tolerance displayed by more experienced social drinkers. Sixty male social drinkers, ranging from 19 to 24 years of age, participated in the study. Thirty subjects had been drinking for 20 months or less (mean?=?11.0 months), and were classified as novice (N) drinkers. The remaining 30 subjects had been drinking for 24 months or more (mean = 40.8 months), and were classified as experienced (E) drinkers. All subjects practiced a pursuit rotor task that measured psychomotor skill. Equal numbers of E and N subjects were then assigned to one of three groups (n?=?10). Two groups were led to expect alcohol and performed the task after receiving either 0.56?g/kg alcohol, or a placebo. The third group received no beverage. E subjects displayed more behavioral tolerance to alcohol than did N drinkers. In accord with the hypothesis, E drinkers displayed a drug-opposite improvement in performance under a placebo, whereas N drinkers showed no appreciable change in performance. These observations support the hypothesis that the acquisition of a compensatory response to cues predicting the administration of alcohol contributes to the greater behavioral tolerance of more experienced drinkers.     

Alcohol expectancies and social deficits relating to problem drinking among college students

Standardized questionnaires were administered to 116 male and female undergraduates to examine how social deficits and alcohol expectancies relate to alcohol use. Participants were classified as either problem or nonproblem drinkers based on the Rutgers Collegiate Substance Abuse Screening Test. Problem drinkers reported experiencing social anxiety, shyness, and lower self-esteem to a greater extent than nonproblem drinkers. Problem drinkers also held more positive alcohol expectancies than nonproblem drinkers. Contrary to our hypotheses, however, particular types of alcohol expectancies did not interact with specific areas of social functioning to influence problem drinking. Overall, these findings suggest that problem drinkers have positive expectations about the immediate effects of alcohol consumption even though drinking is linked to long-term impairment in social functioning.     

The Roles of Alcohol-Related Self Statements in Social Drinking

Recent literature showed that expectancies or cognitions have been proposed as a major factor in influencing the amount of alcohol an individual consumes and the behavioral consequences following consumption.

However, how alcohol expectancies influence alcohol consumption is unclear; this paper reports two studies of the relationship. Study I examined the relationship between alcohol consumption and alcohol-related positive and negative self-statements in 110 social drinkers. The results showed that, in a nondrinking situation, the alcohol expectancies and variables measuring consumption and alcoholrelated problems were correlated. Also, subjects who perceived their “alcoholic sets” as negative consumed more than those who perceived theirs as positive. Study II investigated changes in self-statement responding in 8 light and 8 heavy drinkers in a “normal” pub drinking situation.

The results showed that alcohol-dependent self-statements in the light drinkers were relatively stable across time and between drinking and nondrinking environments. However, the alcohol-dependent self-statements of heavy drinkers became more negative during the drinking session.

Furthermore, the degree and nature of such changes appeared to be related to alcohol-associated problems and consumption.     

Social drinking history,behavioral tolerance and the expectation of alcohol

This research tested the hypothesis that a compensatory response to cues for alcohol contributes to the greater behavioral tolerance displayed by more experienced social drinkers. Sixty male social drinkers, ranging from 19 to 24 years of age, participated in the study. Thirty subjects had been drinking for 20 months or less (mean=11.0 months), and were classified as novice (N) drinkers. The remaining 30 subjects had been drinking for 24 months or more (mean=40.8 months), and were classified as experienced (E) drinkers. All subjects practiced a pursuit rotor task that measured psychomotor skill. Equal numbers of E and N subjects were then assigned to one of three groups (n=10). Two groups were led to expect, alcohol and performed the task after receiving either 0.56 g/kg alcohol, or a placebo. The third group received no beverage. E subjects displayed more behavioral tolerance to alcohol than did N drinkers. In accord with the hypothesis E drinkers displayed a drug-opposite improvement in performance under a placebo, whereas N drinkers showed no appreciable change in performance. These observations support the hypothesis that the acquisition of a compensatory response to cues predicting the administration of alcohol contributes to the greater behavioral tolerance of more experienced drinkers.     

Changes in cognitions for social drinkers in a naturalistic setting

Ten light and eight heavy social drinkers were used in a study designed to investigate the role of cognitions of light and heavy social drinkers during a normal drinking session in a bar. The results showed that there was no significant difference between the light and heavy drinkers for neutral and emotive statements, however, there was a significant difference between the two groups for alcohol dependent and alcohol non-dependent self-statements. A significant interaction was also found for groups x time for the alcohol dependent statements. No significant difference was found for the amount of alcohol consumed. The findings suggest that not all cognitions changed during a drinking session and that emotive and factual statements were unchanged. The results of this study confirm earlier findings which found differences in alcohol related cognitions between light and heavy social drinkers.     

Environmental influences on drinking by college students in a college pub: Behavioral observation in the natural environment

Eighty-two men and women were observed while they were drinking beer at the Douglass-Cook pub, a University-sponsored beer parlor. Males drank significantly more than females; drinkers, male and female, drank more in groups than in dyads. Males and drinkers in groups drank faster than females or drinkers in dyads. Same-sexed dyads were associated with less rapid beer consumption than mixed-sex dyads. These data suggest strongly that the environment within which drinking occurs plays an important role in the nature and extent of that drinking.     

Dependent and problem drinking over 5 years: a latent class growth analysis

Understanding the long-term course of problematic drinking is a fundamental concern for health services research in the alcohol field. The stability of, or change in, the course of drinking--especially heavy drinking--has both theoretical and applied relevance to alcohol research. We explore the application of latent class growth modeling to 5 years of survey data collected from dependent and problem drinkers--some not in treatment at baseline--in an attempt to uncover prototypical longitudinal drinking patterns. Results indicated that five profiles of drinkers can be used to represent their longitudinal course of alcohol consumption: early quitters (N = 88), light/non-drinkers (N = 76), gradual improvers (N = 129), moderate drinkers (N = 229), and heavy drinkers (N = 572). Significant baseline factors included ASI drug severity, dependence symptoms, and marital status. Attendance at AA meetings, the size of one's heavy drinking and drug using social network, past treatment, receiving suggestions about one's drinking, and contacts with the medical system were significant influences. The size of heavy drinking and drug using social networks was noticeably larger for the heavy drinkers. Findings also support the usefulness of a semi-parametric latent group-based approach as a tool for analyzing alcohol-related behaviors.     

Control over interpersonal evaluation and alcohol consumption in male social drinkers

Studies testing the tension reduction hypothesis of alcohol drinking have found contradictory results. Marlatt proposes instead that social drinkers drink to gain control over stressful situations. To test this, 60 male heavy social drinkers were threatened with a social evaluation, then some were given some control over this threat by hearing that they could critique the evaluation and evaluate their evaluator (retaliate). This group was expected to drink less than a threatened group not given control, or a nonthreatened group, and heavy drinkers were expected to be affected more than light drinkers. Then, to determine if people do retaliate after an unfavorable evaluation, subjects received bogus evaluations or no evaluation, and then evaluated “their evaluator.” Those receiving favorable or unfavorable evaluations responded in kind, supporting the coping method provided in the evaluation-with-coping condition. However, although the group that was evaluated and given no control reported more anxiety and took fewer sips than the other groups, they did not differ in wine consumption. The results did not support either the tension reduction or the control hypothesis.     

Influence of social setting and social drinking stimuli on drinking behavior

The present study examined the influence of social setting cues and alcohol drinking cues on the drinking rate and amount of beer consumed by social drinkers (college age males). The design consisted of three experimental conditions (N = 8); a social drinking condition in which the individual drank beer in the company of a beer drinking partner, a social setting condition in which the individual drank with a nondrinking partner, and a solitary setting, control condition. Analyses of variance revealed a significant group effect for amount of alcohol consumed, P <.05, and for sip rate, P <.05, suggesting that social setting cues were discriminate for higher rates and larger amounts of alcohol consumption by social drinkers. These findings are inconsistent with the negative findings reported by Foy & Simon (1978) in their comparison of drinking behavior of alcoholics in social vs. solitary settings. Further research is recommended in order to replicate the obtained findings with alcoholics, as well as with social drinkers, while extending the drinking interval beyond 50 minutes.     

Male/Female Differences in Alcohol-Related Problems: Alcohol Rehabilitation Patients

Differences in male and female prevalence of drinking problems have been studied previously. However, few studies have focused on gender differences in a range of alcohol-related problems in individuals identified as dysfunctional drinkers. We analyzed such differences in 299 alcohol patients who met DSM-III crtieria for alcohol abuse/dependence. Male and female patients differed significantly on heavy consumption patterns and negative social experiences resulting from drinking. However, no significant differences were found in loss of control, dependence, or health problems. The similarities were obtained even though females had been problem drinkers for a shorter number of years. Implications of these results are discussed.