Round robin on accelerated life testing of solar absorber surface durability

As degradation by ageing of solar absorber surfaces was identified to be an important quality factor, the Working Group MSTC (‘Materials in Solar Thermal Collectors') of the IEA-SHCP (International Energy Agency-Solar Heating and Cooling Programme) worked out a general test procedure for accelerated lifetime testing (ALT) of these materials, based on methods established by the former Task X of the IEA SHCP. The qualification test procedure was adopted by ISO and is presently dealt within ISO/TC 180 ‘Solar Energy'. The standard proposal in detail describes a procedure how to test the long-term stability of an absorber surface for the use in flat plate collectors for domestic hot water systems. The collectors service lifetime is assumed to be 25 years, at least. Degradation caused by thermal loads, high humidity and condensation and sulphur dioxide are regarded. In order to examine the feasibility and reproducibility of the test method the Working Group MSTC initiated a round robin test in accelerated life testing of solar absorber surfaces. The test was performed according to the ISO standard proposal dated January 1997. In total, five different industrially manufactured absorber coatings were available to the three participating laboratories. Tests concerning the thermal stability as well as the resistance to high humidity and condensation were performed by all three laboratories. The test for determining absorber surface corrosion resistance to air of high humidity containing sulphur dioxide was carried out by one lab only. The outcome of the round robin test shows very good agreement of the results of the different coatings tested for all of the laboratories. The feasibility and reproducibility of the method was fully confirmed.     

Advanced procedure for the assessment of the lifetime of solar absorber coatings

New solar absorber coatings are developed and used in advanced collector designs with improved efficiency. The operation temperature and stagnation temperature as the main durability load for the absorbers were increasing during the past due to these innovations. Especially the highly selective new coatings have to suffer by these stronger loads. The service life estimation procedures developed in the framework of research activities of the IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (Task 10 and Working Group Materials in Solar–Thermal Collectors) were based on load profiles for less-advanced absorbers and collectors and did not take into account the impact of the optical properties of the absorber coatings on the stagnation temperature of the collectors, which is the main reason for temperature degradation. A new procedure was developed, which allows testing depending on the optical properties (Solar absorptance and thermal emittance) of the absorbers.     

Industrially sputtered solar absorber surface

We report on solar absorber surfaces prepared in a sputtering unit designed for industrial production using roll coating technique and high sputtering rates. The reproducibility and stability of the sputtering process is very good. Solar absorbtance of 0.96 and thermal emittance of 0.10 are obtained. The sputtered absorber is as cost effective as other commercial coatings available for flat plate collectors.     

A step forward towards an ideal absorber for solar energy

With the object of enhancing the absorptivity of water for solar radiation, the effect of dissolved salt was studied. Five saturated solutions were prepared by dissolving the following salts in water: copper sulphate, potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, cobalt chloride and TMPD. The extinction coefficients of these five saturated solutions were measured in the spectral range 330–1100 nm. The results indicated that a mixture of copper sulphate and potassium permanganate solutions behaves as an ideal absorber for solar energy, in that the percentage transmission in the previously mentioned spectral range is reduced to less than 0.1%. The mixture was tested against distilled water, where the rise in temperature against time shows that the absorptivity for solar radiation is significantly improved. The chemical stability of the mixture was also examined over a long period of time.     

Characterization of black nickel solar absorber coatings electroplated in a nickel chlorine aqueous solution

Black nickel coatings electroplated in a nickel- and sodium chlorine aqueous solution have been prepared and parameters in the process have been optimized to achieve optimal solar selectivity. The best result is a solar absorptance of 0.96 and a thermal emittance of 0.10, as also has been obtained previously for the same type of coating ¹H(¹⁵N, αγ)¹²C nuclear resonance reaction (NRR) have contributed with new information about surface chemical composition, morphology and atomic composition in depth profile. These investigations reveal that the coating is porous and contains mainly metallic nickel at the substrate–coating interface and mainly nickel hydroxide at the front surface.The stability of the coating has been tested regarding high-temperature and condensation at high humidity. It has been found that the solar absorptance changes initially, during the first hour of exposure at high temperature, but will then stabilize. Condensation causes a more severe attack on the coating by cracking it. This is contradictory to the results from previous tests at high temperature and humidity in which the black nickel coating was found to be resistant     

Nickel-black solar absorber coatings

A new electrolyte has been proposed for the deposition of nickel-black selective coatings for use in flat-plate solar collectors. The authors have studied the influence of various ingredients and operating parameters on the appearance of the black coatings so obtained with special reference to their optical values (, ε). The coating exhibits better corrsion resistance than the well known black-nickel coatings (which contains nickel, zinc and sulphur) apart from having thermal stability upto 380°C. With no zinc in the deposit, this can be used in place of black nickel coatings with less corrosion problems.     

New method to optimize a solar absorber graded film profile

Normalized dc conductivity was used to analyze the inhomogeneously graded depth profile structure of deposits from dc magnetron reactive sputtering in a roll coater. The graded coating was obtained by moving the substrate through the deposition zone with a non-uniform oxidation along the zone mainly due to the asymmetrical position of the oxygen inlet to the right of the target. With this arrangement, the composition of the deposited film was gradually changed from metal to metal oxide as the substrate moved from left to right through the zone. The profile control therefore relied on the non-uniform oxidation along the sputtering zone. The study shows that the normalized dc conductivity of stationary samples in this roll coater offers a simple and effective method to optimize the graded composition in spectrally selective solar absorber coatings. A solar absorptance of 0.91 with thermal emittance of 0.05 at 100 °C was achieved for a single graded film without antireflection treatment.     

Optimum concentration ratio for an actively cooled solar concentrator-photovoltaic system with a fin-type absorber

Optimum values of the concentration ratio for an actively cooled solar concentrator-photovoltaic system with a fin-type absorber have been determined, taking into account both series resistance as well temperature effects on the solar cells. Results of some typical numerical calculations, made to study the dependence of the optimum value on various design and operational variables, have been plotted graphically and discussed.     

Heat loss of a trapezoidal cavity absorber for a linear Fresnel reflecting solar concentrator

The present paper studies the heat loss of a linear absorber with a trapezoidal cavity and a set of pipes used for a linear Fresnel reflecting solar concentrator. The study includes the measurements on a 1.4 m long prototype installed in a laboratory, and its thermal simulation in steady-state using EnergyPlus software. Results of the measured vertical temperature variation inside the cavity, the surface interior and exterior wall and window temperatures, the global heat loss at steady-state and the heat loss coefficients, are presented for six different temperatures of the pipes. Measurements revealed a stable thermal gradient in the upper portion of the cavity and a convective zone below it. Around 91% of the heat transferred to outdoors occurs at the bottom transparent window, for a pipe temperature of 200 °C. The heat loss coefficient per area of absorbing pipes ranged from 3.39 W/m²K to 6.35 W/m²K (for 110 °C < T_pipe < 285 °C), and it increased with the increase of T_pipe. Simpler and less time-consuming available free software originally designed for heat transfer in buildings was tested to be a possible replacement of the highly complex CFD software commonly used to simulate the steady-state heat loss of the absorber. The experimental and predicted data sets were found to be in good agreement.     

Solar simulator measurement system for large-area solar cells at standard test conditions

A measurement system for solar cells, which can be used for solar cells with a maximum size of 12 × 12 cm² and photocurrents up to 8 A, is described. The measurement facility consists of a commercially available 1000-W solar simulator, a temperature-controlled test chuck, measurement electronics for recording photovoltaic output characteristics of solar cells, and a data acquisition unit. Most emphasis is given to design of measurement electronics, construction of test chuck, beam uniformity and spectral distribution of solar simulator light.     

Optical constants of sputtered Ni/NiO solar absorber film—depth-profiled characterization

An optical analysis of a solar absorber with a graded index coating of nickel–nickel oxide deposited in a continuous process for reactive DC magnetron sputtering is reported. The optical constants were determined by a set of 14 samples deposited under the same sputtering conditions as in the continuous process representing the composition at 14 different depths in the continuously graded index coating solar absorber. The optical constants of the 14 layers were derived from optical measurements of reflectance and transmittance in the wavelength range 300–2500 nm. The optical constants were used to construct a model for the graded refractive index in the solar-absorbing coating. It was found that the graded index was not linear in depth profile and hence could be modelled with four layers: two metallic layers in the base closest to the substrate, a dielectric layer at the top of the coating and one intermediate layer representing the change from metallic to dielectric properties in the middle part of the coating.     

Durability of polymeric glazing materials for solar applications

The economic viability of solar collector systems for domestic hot water (DHW) generation is strongly linked to the cost of such systems. Installation and hardware costs must be reduced by 50% to allow significant market penetration. An attractive approach to cost reduction is to replace glass and metal parts with less expensive, lighter weight polymeric components. Weight reduction decreases the cost of shipping, handling, and installation. The use of polymeric materials also allows the benefits and cost savings associated with well established manufacturing processes, along with savings associated with improved fastening, reduced part count, and overall assembly refinements. A key challenge is to maintain adequate system performance and assure requisite durability for extended lifetimes. Results of preliminary and ongoing screening tests for a large number of candidate polymeric glazing materials are presented. Based on these results, two specific glazings with moderate and poor weathering stability are selected to demonstrate how a service lifetime methodology can be applied to accurately predict the optical performance of these materials during in-service use. A summary is given for data obtained by outdoor exposure and indoor testing of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and high temperature modified polycarbonate copolymer (coPC) materials, and an initial risk analysis is given for the two materials. Screening tests and analyses for service lifetime prediction are discussed. A methodology that provides a way to derive correlations between degradation experienced by materials exposed to controlled accelerated laboratory exposure conditions and materials exposed to in-service conditions is given, and a validation is presented for the methodology based upon durability test results for PVC and coPC.     

Improvement of basin type solar still performance : Use of various absorber materials and solar collector integration

Experimental measurements to determine conditions necessary for efficient solar desalination are given. The effects on performance of using various different absorber materials together with the integration of flat-plate collectors with storage systems in basin type solar stills are investigated. Correlations between daily yield (Y, in litres) and solar insolation (I, in MJ/m²day) are found to be, Y = 0.152I − 0.706 (for black-paint absorbers), Y = 0.180I − 0.987 (for charcoal absorbers), Y = 0.225I − 0.467 (for integrated solar collector and storage system, with black-paint absorbers). The calculated daily-average monthly yields for each case are also given.     

The calculation and analysis of glass-to-metal sealing stress in solar absorber tube

The failure or degradation of solar absorber tubes is the single largest cost factor for current parabolic trough solar power plant. The main failure reason is that there are residual stresses in the glass-to-metal joint which are generated during the cooling process of sealing. According to the thin shell theory and thermal stress theory, this paper presents the analytic solution for the glass-to-metal sealing residual stress. It also analyses how the thickness of glass tube, thickness of metal ring, and thermal expansion coefficient affect the residual stress distribution. In order to verify the calculation results, the photoelastic technique is used to measure the residual stress and the tensile test is used to obtain the point of the most dangerous stress and the tensile strength for the sealed specimens. It can be concluded that the maximum tensile stress happens at some distance near the sealing interface on the outer surface of glass tube. The seal strength increases when the thickness of the glass tube is increased. The analytic solution is proved feasible to analyze the residual stress of glass-to-metal seals in solar absorber tubes.     

Optical properties, durability, and system aspects of a new aluminium-polymer-laminated steel reflector for solar concentrators

A newly developed aluminium-polymer-laminated steel reflector for use in solar concentrators was evaluated with respect to its optical properties, durability, and reflector performance in solar thermal and photovoltaic systems. The optical properties of the reflector material were investigated using spectrophotometer and scatterometry. The durability of the reflector was tested in a climatic test chamber as well as outdoors in Älvkarleby (60.5°N, 17.4°E), Sweden. Before ageing, the solar weighted total and specular reflectance values were 82% and 77%, respectively, and the reflector scattered light isotropically. After 1 year's outdoor exposure, the total and specular solar reflectance had decreased by less than 1%. However, after 2000 h in damp heat and 1000 W/m² simulated solar radiation, the optical properties had changed significantly: The light scattering was anisotropic and the total and specular solar reflectance values had decreased to 75% and 42%, respectively. The decrease was found to be due to degradation of the protective polyethylene terephthalate (PET) layer, caused by UV radiation and high temperature. The conclusions are that the degradation is climate dependent and that PET is not suitable as a protective coating under extreme conditions, such as those in the climatic test chamber. However, the results from outdoor testing indicate that the material withstands exposure in a normal Swedish climate.     

A test procedure for extruded polymeric solar thermal absorbers

An indentation test is proposed to study the degradation of extruded polymeric solar absorbers. The thermal degradation caused by accelerated aging is investigated. The results are compared with the thermal and mechanical impacts during the operation of the solar collector.     

Comparison between predicted and actually observed in-service degradation of a nickel pigmented anodized aluminium absorber coating for solar DHW systems

The actual service degradation in optical performance of a nickel pigmented anodized aluminium absorber coating has been investigated in order to better validate predicted service life data from accelerated life testing. Samples from the coating taken from collectors used in solar DHW systems for time periods of 10 years or more were analysed for that purpose. The study, which was performed by the IEA Working Group: Materials in Solar Thermal Collectors, utilized results from a comprehensive joint case study on accelerated life testing previously performed in Task X of the IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme. It could be concluded from the present study that the agreement between degradation data determined for the absorber samples from the DHW systems and that from accelerated life testing from the Task X study was astonishingly good both from a quantitative and a qualitative point of view. For the anodized aluminium coating the results of the present study strongly point to the fact that the design of the solar collector with respect to airtightness is the most crucial factor in determining service life. The service life was defined as the period during which the optical performance is not less than 95% of its original value. The estimated service life is of the order of 30–40 years for the coating in an airtight solar collector with controlled ventilation of air, whereas in a non-airtight collector with essential uncontrolled ventilation of air, the corresponding life is around 5–10 years. The general conclusion from the study is that the accelerated life testing method as developed by the Task X group is an efficient tool in predicting expected service life of absorber coatings and is therefore to be recommended for qualification of durability of new kinds of absorber coatings.     

a-C:H absorber layer for solar cells matched to solar spectrum

An a-C:H-based absorber layer for photovoltaic application was fabricated by a DC PECVD. The stepped voltage biasing of the deposition process makes it possible to tailor the bandgap of the manufactured layers and match them to the solar spectrum. Such system can be used as intrinsic layer in p–i–n solar cells as well as in converter solar cells.     

Considerations for the selection of an applicable energy efficiency test procedure for electric motors in Malaysia: Lessons for other developing countries

Electric motors are a major energy-consuming appliance in the industrial sector. According to a survey, electric motors account for more than 70% of the total growth from 1991 to 2004 in electricity consumption in this sector in Malaysia. To reduce electricity consumption, Malaysia should consider resetting the minimum energy efficiency standards for electric motors sometime in the coming year. The first step towards adopting energy efficiency standards is the creation of a procedure for testing and rating equipment. An energy test procedure is the technical foundation for all energy efficiency standards, energy labels and other related programs. The test conditions in the test procedure must represent the conditions of the country. This paper presents the process for the selection of an energy test procedure for electric motors in Malaysia based on the country's conditions and requirements. The adoption of test procedures for electric motors internationally by several countries is also discussed in this paper. Even though the paper only discusses the test procedure for electric motors in Malaysia, the methods can be directly applied in other countries without major modifications.     

Heat transfer enhancement of concentrated solar absorber using hollow cylindrical fins filled with phase change material

A concentrated solar absorber with finned phase change materials was experimentally studied using a Scheffler type parabolic dish concentrator. The absorber's inner surface was fixed with hollow cylindrical containers filled with phase change material (PCM) for heat transfer augmentation. The absorber's selected PCM was acetanilide (Melting point of 116 °C)—the cylindrical capsules protruding into the fluid side to create turbulence and mixing and acting as fins. The absorber surface temperature was observed to be about 130–150 °C during the outdoor tests while passing fluid through the absorber. The fluid flow rate varied from 60 to 100 kg/h during the outdoor experiments. The peak energy and exergy efficiency of parabolic dish collector (PDC) at the fluid flow rate of 80 kg/h with PCM integrated solar absorber was found to be about 67.88% and 6.96%, respectively. The integration of cylindrical PCM containers resulted in more heat transfer augmentation in the solar absorbers. The optimized solar absorber could be suitable for various applications like steam generation, biomass gasification, space heating, and hydrogen generation.