Present groundwater status in Egypt and the environmental impacts

This article is an attempt to give a brief review on the status of groundwater studies in Egypt, their results, and the present plans for groundwater development that are usually based on the hydrogeological characteristics of the groundwater resources as well as on the environmental control of the discharge area.In terms of groundwater hydrology, Egypt can be divided into the following groundwater provinces: (1) the Western Desert, (2) the Eastern Desert, (3) the Nile Valley including the delta, (4) the Sinai Peninsula, (5) the Northern Coastal Zone, and (6) Wadi El-Natrun.The studies of volume and nature of groundwater and the environmental impact studies that were carried out in each of these provinces differed according to the importance given to development of projects in areas of interest and to the availability of funds. Recent studies and the surveys conducted for groundwater hydrological research by local and international organizations are described separately for each province. Special reference is made to groundwater hydro-geological setting, groundwater resources evaluation, and present and future utilization. The New Valley is the largest Egyptian irrigated agricultural development project that is solely dependent on groundwater resources. An outline showing its nature, objective, and size is included as an example of groundwater development.     

Characterization and assessment of groundwater resources using hydrogeochemical analysis,GIS, and field data in southern Wadi Qena,Egypt

An integrated approach using hydrogeochemical analysis, remote sensing, GIS, and field data was employed to characterize the groundwater resources in southern Wadi Qena, Egypt. Various thematic maps showing topography, lineaments, wadi deposits, slope, and stream networks were combined through GIS analysis to discriminate groundwater potential zones on the valley floor. The resulting map classifies the area into five groups of groundwater potentiality from very high to very low zones, supported by the groundwater level, well locations, and by the results of previous geophysical studies. Thirty-seven groundwater well data were tested from the Quaternary and Nubian Sandstone aquifers and analyzed for physio-chemical parameters. Results of hydrochemical analysis show that water quality varies widely through the aquifers, and groundwater in the Quaternary aquifer shows the highest salinity values and a predominance of Na and Cl in water chemical facies. Overlay GIS maps of alkalinity (SAR and RSC) and salinity hazards (EC and Cl) of the Quaternary aquifer were prepared. The resulting maps show that samples do not present an alkalinity hazard in most areas but are potentially salinity hazard. Therefore, the water is fit for agricultural use with certain restrictions, but is not suitable for direct human consumption because it is either very hard or too saline.     

Investigation of groundwater potentiality in the eastern part of Qena,central Eastern Desert,Egypt, using 2D homogeneous function method

The present study represents an application of the 2D homogeneous function method to investigate the near-surface groundwater potentiality to the east of Qena town, Egypt. The homogeneous function automatically inverts first arrival refractions to derive a 2D velocity distribution, which involves seismic boundaries. A complex set of observed refracted traveltimes along four seismic profiles (12 spreads) is used to construct refraction velocity field section and structural section. Such sections allow viewing the complex layered structure and delineating its boundaries and faults. The interpreted geoseismic layers were traced, according to their own gradients and velocity ranges. The resultant models were successful in fulfilling the proposed objective, as they provide: (1) the required details on the delineation of the subsurface layers, where three geoseismic layers with different ranges of velocities were detected; (2) determination of the thickness and the inversion boundary of water-bearing layer; and (3) detection of normal and reverse faults with displacement of about 10–40 m and variable dipping directions. The obtained result was found to be completely compatible with the information gained from identified boundaries of the nearby borehole.     

Geochemical and isotopic evolution of groundwater in the Wadi Watir watershed,Sinai Peninsula,Egypt

The Wadi Watir delta in the Wadi Watir watershed is a tourist area in the arid southeastern part of the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt, where development and growth of the community on the delta are constrained by the amount of groundwater that can be withdrawn sustainably. To effectively manage groundwater resources in the Wadi Watir delta, the origin of groundwater recharge, groundwater age, and changes in groundwater chemistry in the watershed needs to be understood. Mineral identification, rock chemistry, water chemistry, and the isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon in groundwater were used to identify the sources, mixing, and ages of groundwater in the watershed and the chemical evolution of groundwater as it flows from the upland areas in the watershed to the developed areas at the Wadi Watir delta. Groundwater in the Wadi Watir watershed is primarily from recent recharge while groundwater salinity is controlled by mixing of chemically different waters and dissolution of minerals and salts in the aquifers. The El Shiekh Attia and Wadi El Ain areas in the upper Wadi Watir watershed have different recharge sources, either from recharge from other areas or from different storm events. The downgradient Main Channel area receives groundwater flow primarily from the El Shiekh Attia area. Groundwater in the Main Channel area is the primary source of groundwater supplying the aquifers of the Wadi Watir delta.     

Morphotectonic controls of groundwater flow regime and relating environmental impacts in Northwest Sinai,Egypt

The frequent appearance of some hydro-environmental hazard features, such as waterlogging and soil salinization along the susceptible zones at Northwest Sinai area (NWSA), has put serious challenges and obstacles for a correct and efficient land use planning of this region, for several decades. Although previous studies have shown that the whole region of Northern Sinai is greatly affected by the tectonic movements associated with the Syrian Arc folding system (SAS), NWSA is barren of any obvious surficial structures. The current work aims to investigate the effect of subsurface tectonic features on the hydrogeologic regime of NWSA.Hydrogeological and remote sensing data were integrated with ground geophysical gravity and magnetic measurements, using the geographic information system. Data integration asserts the role played by buried tectonic features not only in governing the landforms of the upper water-bearing quaternary formations but also in controlling their flow regime.Two major subsurface structures were identified through interpreting the geophysical measurements. A buried dome-like structure, dominating the central part of the mapped area, coincides with the radial flow pattern observed on the water table map. At the southwestern corner of the study area, an elevated groundwater level, caused by continuous groundwater accumulation at the discharge boundary, is superimposing a subsurface block-faulted depression. The waterlogging features (saturation of the soil by groundwater and inundation of local depressions due to rising of water table) dominating the discharge lowlands of NWSA support the conclusion that a buried block-faulted structure exerts a strong influence on the thickness and groundwater flow regime of the shallow quaternary aquifer.     

Hydrochemical evolution and variation of groundwater and its environmental impact at Sohag, Egypt

Groundwater resources of Sohag, Egypt are currently threatened by contamination from agricultural and urbanization activities. Groundwater in Sohag area has a special significance where it is the second source for fresh water used for agricultural, domestic, and industrial purposes. Due to growing population, agriculture expansion, and urbanization, groundwater quality assessment needs more attention to cope with the increasing water demand in this arid zones and limited water resources. The aim of this paper is to address the integrated role of geochemical processes, agriculture and urbanization in evolution of groundwater composition, and their impact on groundwater quality to help in management and protection of groundwater resources of study area using geochemical modeling techniques and geographical information systems. Spatial variation of groundwater hydrochemical properties, rock–water interaction, ion exchange, and assessment of groundwater quality were investigated. Results indicated that groundwater properties are varied spatially and its evolution in the study area is generally controlled by the prevailed geochemical processes represented by leaching, dissolution, and precipitation of salts and minerals, ion exchange, in addition to human activities represented by agriculture and urbanization as well as climatic and poor drainage conditions. Management alternatives should be followed in the study area to avoid degradation of groundwater quality and provide sustainable development.     

Urban impacts analysis on hydrochemical and hydrogeological evolution of groundwater in shallow aquifer Linares,Mexico

In northeast Mexico is Linares City, which has an extensive agricultural area and many industrial activities. Near this city is the Cerro-Prieto Dam (~12 km NE direction); this drinking water reservoir captures the water of the Pablillo River catchment area and constitutes an important source of potable water for the metropolitan area of Monterrey, the largest urban center of this region. Groundwater sources in this area provide drinking water to Linares inhabitants. A hydrogeological and hydrochemical study was conducted on the shallow aquifers surrounding the urban centers (Linares and Hualahuises) to determine the evolution of the water quality between 1981 and 2009. The hydrochemistry was assessed upgradient and downgradient from the potential contamination sources in Linares city. Groundwater showed a chemical evolution from calcium-bicarbonate type to calcium–sodium-sulfate type. The water qualities in the downstream area after Linares are inferior compared to the upstream area before the city. Nitrate concentrations in groundwater increased significantly after 28 years indicating an important pollutant process in this period of time over the study area. The possible pollution sources could be the agricultural and farm activities, industrial development, landfills leachate, septic tanks and wastewater of municipal and domestic consumption. If the present scenario continues, an aquifer vulnerability assessment would be important for the sustainable water management.     

Mechanism of the water invasion of Gaoyang Iron Mine,China and its impacts on the mine groundwater environment

With the development of mining of iron deposits in China, groundwater invasion and the impacts of groundwater drainage, such as regional groundwater table lowering, overlapping cones of depression, subsidence, and water quality deterioration are environmental problems which endanger mining production and human life. Effective prevention of water invasion or timely determination of the mechanism of water bursting and rational design of drainage plans are the most urgent mining challenges. The mechanism of water invasion and the environment impacts on the groundwater system of the Gaoyang Iron Mine, China were dealt with in this paper. A systematical investigation of the hydrogeological conditions and monitoring of groundwater dynamics of the mine were completed. Results show that the limestone of the middle Ordovician System constitutes the under floor of the iron deposit. This limestone is the main source of water invasion into the mine. Groundwater dynamic equilibrium conditions are broken due to mine drainage. Water invasion and drainage have caused a serious impact on the groundwater environment of the area.     

An examination of groundwater within the Hawara Pyramid,Egypt

The Hawara Pyramid is an outstanding monument. However, the mudbrick structure shows signs of erosion, and the passages and chambers are currently submerged. The problem of water ingress has mainly arisen since the 1880s. In this study, an initial assessment of the pyramid structure was made and causes of water ingress were investigated through analysis of water samples. Stable oxygen isotope measurements indicate that the source of water within the pyramid is the Bahr Selah canal. Water within the pyramid is highly saline compared to the Bahr Selah, and evaporation can only partly account for this high salinity. The composition of dissolved ions suggests that dissolution of salts in soils and from bedrock in the vicinity of the pyramid has enhanced the salinity of water percolating into the pyramid structure. Water ingress and salt deposition are at present the main threat to the integrity of the monument. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Hydrogeological conditions and aquifers potentiality for sustainable development of the desert areas in Wadi Qena,Eastern Desert,Egypt

To increase the potentiality of development and land reclamation activities, the Egyptian government funds the construction of a new desert road in Upper Egypt. This road connects Upper Egypt with the Red Sea Governorate. Surrounding the road is 207,000 acres of land surface which is almost flat and suitable for reclamation. To ensure the sustainability of the proposed development surrounding the road, analyses of the morphometric parameters, infiltration test and the grain size distribution, geoelectrical and hydrogeological investigations were conducted in the area. The results indicated a possibility of flash flood hazards and poor drainage condition for land reclamation activities is expected. The hydrogeological and geoelectrical investigations revealed that the unconfined Quaternary and confined Nubian Sandstone aquifers are the main aquifers in the area. The depths to water in the two aquifers range from 18 to 36 and 80 to 300 m with an average thickness of 40 and 275 m, respectively. The aquifers are made of sands and silt with clay intercalations. The total dissolved solids of water ranges between 1,700 and 5,400 mg/L, whereas the sodium absorption ratio ranges between 7 and 30 meq/L, indicating the suitability of water for irrigating medium- to high-salt-tolerant crops with proper drainage facilities. Thus, water in this area is not suitable for domestic use. Based on hydrogeological equations, the available water for extraction from the aquifers in the area is about 17.195?×?10⁹ m³, and this volume is not feasible to reclaim the whole proposed area for reclamation. Meanwhile, it may be possible to water small farms (not more than 60,000 acres for 50 years). Surface water source should be considered for the sustainability development of the area.     

Turonian-Santonian echinoids from Wadi Qena,Eastern Desert,Egypt; a new arrangement of apical disc plating in spatangoids

Eighteen echinoid species (seven regular and eleven irregular) belonging to twelve genera have been described from the Turonian-Santonian succession of two sections located in the northern part of Wadi Qena, Eastern Desert. The diversity of the recorded species is low in the Turonian (six species), but comparatively high in the Coniacian-Santonian (twelve species). Of the recorded species, Most of these species (72%) are recorded for the first time from Wadi Qena area, one left in open nomenclature, Mecaster sp., represents a new species, and two, Phymosoma microtuberculatum and Thylechinus (T.) said, represent new records for Egypt. The taxonomic rank of Parapygus sudrensis has been changed. Phymosoma microtuberculatum which is known from the ‘Senonian’ of southwest Europe is recorded herein in the lower Turonian. Two echinoid assemblage zones are recognizable in each of the studied two sections. They are correlated with other fossil assemblage zones in Egypt. Faunal affinity and paleobiogeography of the species are discussed. A new arrangement of apical disc plating in spatangoids is described and discussed.     

Morphometric,statistical, and hazard analyses using ASTER data and GIS technique of WADI El-Mathula watershed,Qena, Egypt

An attempt to carry out morphometric, statistical, and hazard analyses using ASTER data and GIS technique of Wadi El-Mathula watershed, Central Eastern Desert, Egypt. Morphometric analysis with application of GIS technique is essential to delineate drainage networks; basin geometry, drainage texture, and relief characteristics, through detect forty morphometric parameters of the study watershed and its sub-basins. Extract new drainage network map with DEM, sub-basin boundaries, stream orders, drainage networks, slope, drainage density, flow direction maps with more details is very necessary to analyze different morphometric and hydrologic applications for the study basin. Statistical analysis of morphometric parameters was done through cluster analysis, regression equations, and correlation coefficient matrix. Clusters analyses detect three independents variables which are stream number, basin area, and stream length have a very low linkage distance of 0.001 (at very high similarity of 99.95%) in a cluster with the basin width. Main channel length and basin perimeter (at very high similarity of 99.83%) are in a cluster with basin length. Using the regression equations and graphical correlation matrix indicates the mathematical relationships and helps to predict the behavior between any two variables. Hazard analysis and hazard degree assessment for each sub-basin were performed. The hazardous factors were detected and concluded that most of sub-basins are classified as moderately to highly hazardous. Finally, we recommended that the flood possibilities should be taken in consideration during future development of these areas.     

Climate-induced hydrological impacts on the groundwater system of the Pingtung Plain,Taiwan

The Pingtung Plain is one of the most important groundwater-resource areas in southwestern Taiwan. The overexploitation of groundwater in the last two decades has led to serious deterioration in the quantity and quality of groundwater resources in this area. Furthermore, the manifestation of climate change tends to induce the instability of surface-water resources and strengthen the importance of the groundwater resources. Southwestern Taiwan in particular shows decreasing tendencies in both the annual amount of precipitation and annual precipitation days. To effectively manage the groundwater resources of the Pingtung Plain, a numerical modeling approach is adopted to investigate the response of the groundwater system to climate variability. A hydrogeological model is constructed based on the information from geology, hydrogeology, and geochemistry. Applying the linear regression model of precipitation to the next two decades, the modeling result shows that the lowering water level in the proximal fan raises an alarm regarding the decrease of available groundwater in the stress of climate change, and the enlargement of the low-groundwater-level area on the coast signals the deterioration of water quantity and quality in the future. Suitable strategies for water-resource management in response to hydrological impacts of future climatic change are imperative.

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Resumen La llanura Pingtung constituye uno de los recursos de aguas subterráneas más importantes en el Suroeste de Taiwan. La sobreexplotación de las aguas subterráneas en las dos últimas décadas ha dado lugar a un serio deterioro de la calidad y la cantidad de los recursos subterráneos en esta área. En particular el Suroeste de Taiwan muestra una tendencia decreciente en las cantidades de precipitación y en los días anuales de lluvia. Para gestionar de forma efectiva los recursos subterráneos en la Llanura Pingtung, se ha utilizado un modelo numérico aproximado para investigar la respuesta de las aguas subterráneas a la variabilidad climática. Un modelo hidrogeológico se construye a partir de la información geológica, hidrogeológica y geoquímica. Aplicando el modelo de regresión linear de la precipitación para las próximas dos décadas, el modelo resultante muestra que el descenso de los niveles de agua en el abanico proximal es alarmante, observándose el descenso del agua subterránea disponible en la presión del cambio climático, y el crecimiento del área de descensos de niveles de agua subterránea en la costa apunta a un deterioro de la cantidad y calidad del agua subterránea en el futuro. Se imponen pues, estrategias apropiadas para la gestión de los recursos hídricos en respuesta a los impactos hidrológicos del futuro cambio climático.

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Résumé La plaine de Pingtung est l’une des plus importantes zones de ressource en eau souterraine du Sud-Ouest de Taiwan. La surexploitation de l’eau souterraine durant les deux dernières décennies a conduit à une sérieuse détérioration de la quantité et de la qualité des ressources en eau souterraine dans cette zone. De plus, la manifestation des changements climatiques tend à induire une instabilité des ressources en eau souterraine et renforce l’importance des ressources en eau souterraine. Le Sud-Ouest de Taiwan montre, en particulier, des précipitations annuelles et des nombres annuels de jour de pluie à la baisse. Pour gérer efficacement les ressources en eau souterraine de la Plaine de Pingtung, une approche par modélisation numérique est adoptée pour étudier la réponse du système hydrogéologique aux variabilités climatiques. La construction du modèle hydrogéologique est basée sur les informations géologiques, hydrogéologiques et géochimiques. En appliquant le modèle de régression linéaire aux précipitations pour les deux prochaines décades, le résultat de la modélisation montre que la baisse du niveau d’eau atteint un état alarmant au regard de la décroissance des eaux souterraines disponibles et la contrainte du changement climatique, tandis que l’extension de la zone de niveau bas des eaux souterraines à la cote indique une détérioration de la quantité et de la qualité de l’eau dans le futur. Des stratégies convenables pour la gestion des ressources en eau souterraine en réponse aux impacts hydrologiques de futurs changements climatiques sont impératifs.

     

Quaternary evolution of the Abu Quir bay,Egypt

The Pleistocene/Holocene history of Abu Quir bay and the adjacent shoreline has been studied using textural, petrological and geotechnical information obtained from 33 boreholes. The sedimentary vertical sequence is as follows reading from bottom to top: Late Pleistocene shelf sand and stiff mud, Late Pleistocene/Holocene transgressive sand, Holocene calcareous shelf mud, Holocene nearshore sand, prodelta mud, delta plain lagoonal and marsh mud, delta front mud and sand and coastal sand of beach and dunes. These units are produced as a response to shoreline fluctuation, resulting from a wide variety of deltaic and shelf environments. The study identifies delta lobes of the former Canopic branch which was located in the western part of the bay.     

Modelling climate-change impacts on groundwater recharge in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia

A methodology is presented for assessing the average changes in groundwater recharge under a future climate. The method is applied to the 1,060,000 km² Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) in Australia. Climate sequences were developed based upon three scenarios for a 2030 climate relative to a 1990 climate from the outputs of 15 global climate models. Dryland diffuse groundwater recharge was modelled in WAVES using these 45 climate scenarios and fitted to a Pearson Type III probability distribution to condense the 45 scenarios down to three: a wet future, a median future and a dry future. The use of a probability distribution allowed the significance of any change in recharge to be assessed. This study found that for the median future, climate recharge is projected to increase on average by 5% across the MDB but this is not spatially uniform. In the wet and dry future scenarios the recharge is projected to increase by 32% and decrease by 12% on average across the MDB, respectively. The differences between the climate sequences generated by the 15 different global climate models makes it difficult to project the direction of the change in recharge for a 2030 climate, let alone the magnitude.     

Climate change and its impacts on the coastal zone of the Nile Delta,Egypt

The main objectives of the current work are (1) to determine historic pattern of shoreline changes (erosion and accretion) along the north coast of the Nile Delta, (2) to present a future view on what to be expected regarding climate change impacts, sea-level rise (SLR) scenarios, expected land losses and alteration of some soil characteristics (3) to recognize negative impacts of SLR on the Nile Delta coast and (4) to assess and suggest protection measures. The current investigation was conducted using the advanced techniques of remote sensing and geographic information system. The investigated area with 394 measured locations is located along the northern coast of the Nile Delta between Alexandria and ElTina plain in Sinai peninsula exactly between 29°20′ and 32°40′ E and 29°54′ and 31°35′ N with the minimum erosion values of 1.11 m², maximum of 6,044,951.64 m² and total of 16.02 km². On the other hand, 177 sites showed minimum accretion values of 0.05 m², maximum of 2,876,855.86 m² and total of 13.19 km². SLR was determined by applying the quadrant equation for 10-year intervals using 1990 as the base year. Mediterranean SLR along the Nile Delta coast could be estimated considering three different scenarios (low 0.20 m, medium 0.50 m, and high 0.90 m). Impacts of SLR are divided into (1) primary and (2) secondary impacts. Over the coming decades, the Nile Delta will face greater threat due to SLR and land subsidence as well. Regarding climate change and its impacts on soil characteristics, rapid increase in salinity values during the former three decades were found. This increase may be due to the intrusion of salty water of the Mediterranean. On the other hand, organic matter content decreased due to higher temperature, especially during the summer season. Some protection measures were assessed and suggested to combat or tackle SLR.     

Three-dimensional groundwater flow modeling approach for the groundwater management options for the Dakhla oasis,Western Desert,Egypt

In Dakhla oasis, Western Desert of Egypt, groundwater is the only resource for all anthropogenic activities. During the last 50 years, the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (NSAS) has been undergoing serious stress through withdrawing its storage. Plans for expanding the agricultural areas in Dakhla oasis were given by the government. This article is an attempt to investigate the best management option that meets development ambitions and groundwater availability. Based on a calibrated regional three-dimensional groundwater flow model for the NSAS using FEFLOW, a refined (high resolution) local scale model was developed to simulate and predict the impact of applying the actual and planned extractions rates on Dakhla oasis. Five management scenarios were suggested. The application of the actual extraction rate of 1.2 × 10⁶ m³/day for the oasis for the next 90 years resulted in a drawdown of 75 m and a depth to groundwater up to 75 m with an annual change in hydraulic head of 0.57 m. At the end of this simulation, only a few wells at the west of the oasis will still be free flowing. The application of the planned extraction rate (1.7 × 10⁶ m³/day) resulted in great depths to groundwater (>100 m) and formed huge cones of depressions that connected together to cover the whole oasis and extend further beyond its borders. It was found that the best option for groundwater management in the oasis is the implementation of an extraction rate of 1.46 × 10⁶ m³/day, as the depths to groundwater will never exceed the 100 m limit.     

Potential impacts of climate change on groundwater levels on the Kerdi-Shirazi plain,Iran

It is important to predict how groundwater levels in an aquifer will respond to various climate change scenarios to effectively plan for how groundwater resources will be used in the future. Due to the overuse of groundwater resources and the multi-year drought in the Kerdi-Shirazi plain in Iran, some land subsidence and a drop in groundwater levels has taken place, and without active management, further degradation of the groundwater resource is possible under predicted future climate change scenarios in the country. To determine the potential impacts of climate change on groundwater levels in the region, the groundwater model GMS was coupled with the atmospheric circulation model HADCM3 using scenarios A1B, A2 and B1 for the period 2016–2030. The results of the climate modelling suggest that the Kerdi-Shirazi plain will experience an increase in minimum temperature and maximum temperature of, respectively, between 0.03 and 0.47, and 0.32–0.45 °C for this time period. The results of the groundwater modelling suggest that water levels on the Kerdi-Shirazi plain will continue to decline over the forecast period with decreases of 34.51, 36.57 and 33.58 m being predicted, respectively, for climate scenarios A1B, A2 and B1. Consequently, groundwater resources in the Kerdi-Shirazi plain will urgently need active management to minimize the effects of ongoing water level decline and to prevent saltwater intrusion and desertification in the region.