Social comparison activity under threat: Downward evaluation and upward contacts.

Social comparison processes include the desire to affiliate with others, the desire for information about others, and explicit self-evaluation against others. Previously these types of comparison activities and their corresponding measures have been treated as interchangeable. We present evidence that in certain groups under threat, these comparison activities diverge, with explicit self-evaluation made against a less fortunate target (downward evaluation), but information and affiliation sought out from more fortunate others (upward contacts). These effects occur because downward evaluation and upward contacts appear to serve different needs, the former ameliorating self-esteem and the latter enabling a person to improve his or her situation and simultaneously increase motivation and hope. Implications for the concept, measurement, and theory of social comparison are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social comparison direction, threat, and self-esteem on affect, self-evaluation, and expected success.

Two studies explored the conditions under which social comparisons are used to manage negative affect and naturalistic threats. Study 1 examined induced mood and dispositional self-esteem as determinants of affective responses to upward and downward comparisons. Consistent with a mood repair prediction, only low-self-esteem Ss in whom a negative mood had been induced reported improved mood after exposure to downward comparison information. Study 2 examined the impact of naturalistic threats on responses to comparison information. Relative to a no-comparison baseline, low-self-esteem Ss who had experienced a recent academic setback reported more favorable self-evaluations and greater expectations of future success in college after exposure to downward comparison information. These results remained significant after controlling statistically for general distress. Implications for downward comparison theory are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support versus companionship: Effects on life stress, loneliness, and evaluations by others.

In recent years, much interest has focused on delineating and contrasting specific functions of social relationships that contribute to psychological well-being. Five studies contrasted the roles of companionship and social support in buffering the effects of life stress, in influencing feelings of loneliness and social satisfaction, and in affecting others' judgments. Study 1 analyzed data from a community survey and found that companionship had a main effect on psychological well-being and a buffering effect on minor life stress, whereas social support had only a buffering effect on major life stress. Studies 2, 3, and 4 analyzed data from two college student samples and a different community survey to evaluate how companionship and social support contributed to relationship satisfaction and feelings of loneliness. The results of these studies indicated that companionship was the strongest predictor of these dimensions of social satisfaction. Study 5 used an experimental design to test the hypothesis that a deficit of companionship elicits more negative reactions from others than does a deficit of social support. This hypothesis received partial support. Considered together, the results of these studies suggest that companionship plays a more important and more varied role in sustaining emotional well-being than previous studies have acknowledged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social identity and threat on self-esteem and group attributions.

Two studies were conducted to examine reactions and coping responses to a threatened group identity. In both studies, participants were asked to read a (fictitious) report that varied whether their group received a good or bad evaluation. In Study 2, the report also gave an internal or external reason for the rating. Study 1 showed that participants made more positive affirmations about an important group membership when their group had been threatened. They also made an equal number of internal and external attributions when they identified strongly with their group. Study 2 showed that participants who were given a group-serving attribution when their group had been threatened had higher self-esteem than those not given a group-serving attribution, especially if they identified strongly with their group. These results are discussed in the context of social identity theory and biased information processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implicit self-esteem compensation: Automatic threat defense.

Four experiments demonstrated implicit self-esteem compensation (ISEC) in response to threats involving gender identity (Experiment 1), implicit racism (Experiment 2), and social rejection (Experiments 3-4). Under conditions in which people might be expected to suffer a blow to self-worth, they instead showed high scores on 2 implicit self-esteem measures. There was no comparable effect on explicit self-esteem. However, ISEC was eliminated following self-affirmation (Experiment 3). Furthermore, threat manipulations increased automatic intergroup bias, but ISEC mediated these relationships (Experiments 2-3). Thus, a process that serves as damage control for the self may have negative social consequences. Finally, pretest anxiety mediated the relationship between threat and ISEC (Experiment 3), whereas ISEC negatively predicted anxiety among high-threat participants (Experiment 4), suggesting that ISEC may function to regulate anxiety. The implications of these findings for automatic emotion regulation, intergroup bias, and implicit self-esteem measures are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal evaluations following threats to self: Role of self-esteem.

In 2 studies, the authors used dyadic interactions to assess the influence of ego threat on likability as a function of self-esteem. In both studies, 2 naive participants engaged in a structured conversation; in half of the dyads, 1 participant received an ego threat prior to the interaction. In the 1st study, threatened high self-esteem participants were rated as less likable than were threatened low self-esteem participants. The 2nd study confirmed that ego threats are associated with decreased liking for those with high self-esteem and with increased liking for those with low self-esteem. A mediational analysis demonstrated that decreased liking among high self-esteem participants was due to being perceived as antagonistic. Study 2 also indicated that the findings could not be explained by trait levels of narcissism. These patterns are interpreted in terms of differential sensitivity to potential interpersonal rejection. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some effects of shared threat and prejudice in racially mixed groups.

"The purpose of this experiment was to test the relationship between shared threat and the expression of prejudice hypothesized by Feshbach and Singer (1957). 48 Ss, varying with respect to anti-Negro prejudice, were placed under conditions of shared threat or nonthreat, in task oriented cooperative work groups. A Negro confederate was a member in each group. It was found, as hypothesized, that under conditions of shared threat a reduction in the expression of prejudice occurs in terms of direct evaluation of the Negro by other group members." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trait anxiety and beliefs regarding danger and threat to self-esteem.

Administered the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory to 46 Ss, who were then asked to rate the degree of threat or danger involved in several hypothetical situations. Results support R. Lazurus' theory that chronic or dispositional anxiety is significantly related to beliefs that the environment is physically dangerous and threatening to self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceiver threat in social interactions with stigmatized others.

The extent to which stigmatized interaction partners engender perceivers' threat reactions (i.e., stigma–threat hypothesis) was examined. Experiments 1 and 2 included the manipulation of stigma using facial birthmarks. Experiment 3 included manipulations of race and socioeconomic status. Threat responses were measured physiologically, behaviorally, and subjectively. Perceivers interacting with stigmatized partners exhibited cardiovascular reactivity consistent with threat and poorer performance compared with participants interacting with nonstigmatized partners, who exhibited challenge reactivity. In Experiment 3, intergroup contact moderated physiological reactivity such that participants who reported more contact with Black persons exhibited less physiological threat when interacting with them. These results support the stigma–threat hypothesis and suggest the utility of a biopsychosocial approach to the study of stigma and related constructs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vicarious anxiety: A systematic evaluation of a vicarious threat to self-esteem.

Investigated in 3 studies, Ss' state anxiety arousal in response to an in vivo vicarious threat to self-esteem. In Studies 1 and 2, a total of 70 undergraduates were exposed to a guest speaker who provided the anxiety manipulation. All Ss completed R. Hogan's empathy scale (see record 1969-12966-001), the Adult Norwicki-Strickland Internal–External Control Scale, and the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory. In addition, Ss in Study 2 also completed the Defense Mechanism Inventory. Inboth Studies, correlation and median split analyses indicated that high empathic and low trait anxious Ss reported elevated state anxiety in response to the vicarious threat. When Ss were matched on initial state anxiety, high empathy Ss were found to have experienced vicarious anxiety, whereas Ss low on empathy did not. In addition to replicating Study 1, Study 2 found that the Helplessness factor of locus of control was significantly negatively related to empathy, and the cognitive reappraisal styles of reversal (denial, reaction formation) and projection were related to state anxiety decreases. Study 3 with 14 undergraduates provided evidence for the absence of a confound. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Downward comparison principles in social psychology.

The theory of downward comparison posits that persons experiencing negative affect can enhance their subjective well-being through comparison with a less fortunate other, the process occurring on either a passive or active basis. The present author discusses the basic principle of downward comparison and its corollaries and suggests that these represent the motivational process for phenomena observed in several areas of social psychology. Evidence is considered from studies of the fear-affiliation effect, choice of others for social comparison, scapegoating, projection, aversive environmental events and attraction toward others, social prejudice, hostile aggression, and humor. It is shown that downward comparison principles encompass empirical evidence from these areas, account for nonreplications as well as confirmatory findings, and provide a theoretical basis for the relation among the various phenomena. (111 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison and affiliation under threat: Effects on recovery from major surgery.

This study extends stress and affiliation research by examining the effects of preoperative roommate assignments on the affiliation patterns, preoperative anxiety, and postoperative recovery of 84 male coronary-bypass patients. Patients were assigned preoperatively to a room alone or to a semiprivate room with a roommate who was either cardiac or noncardiac and either preoperative or postoperative. Patients assigned to a roommate who was postoperative rather than preoperative were less anxious, were more ambulatory postoperatively, and had shorter postoperative stays. Independently, patients were more ambulatory postoperatively and were discharged sooner if assigned to a roommate who was cardiac rather than noncardiac. No-roommate patients generally had the slowest recoveries. Affiliations reflecting cognitive clarity concerns, emotional comparison, and emotional support were examined. Theoretical implications for research involving social comparison and affiliation under threat are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived discrimination as worldview threat or worldview confirmation: Implications for self-esteem.

In 3 studies, the authors tested the hypothesis that discrimination targets' worldview moderates the impact of perceived discrimination on self-esteem among devalued groups. In Study 1, perceiving discrimination against the ingroup was negatively associated with self-esteem among Latino Americans who endorsed a meritocracy worldview (e.g., believed that individuals of any group can get ahead in America and that success stems from hard work) but was positively associated with self-esteem among those who rejected this worldview. Study 2 showed that exposure to discrimination against their ingroup (vs. a non-self-relevant group) led to lower self-esteem, greater feelings of personal vulnerability, and ingroup blame among Latino Americans who endorsed a meritocracy worldview but to higher self-esteem and decreased ingroup blame among Latino Americans who rejected it. Study 3 showed that compared with women informed that prejudice against their ingroup is pervasive, women informed that prejudice against their ingroup is rare had higher self-esteem if they endorsed a meritocracy worldview but lower self-esteem if they rejected this worldview. Findings support the idea that perceiving discrimination against one's ingroup threatens the worldview of individuals who believe that status in society is earned but confirms the worldview of individuals who do not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instigation to aggression as a function of self-disclosure and threat to self-esteem.

Examined whether self-disclosure would make a person more vulnerable to personal threat and thus increase instigation to angry aggression. 72 female undergraduates exchanged communications with 4 female confederates showing low or high self-disclosure or a control communication. Ss then commented on the communications, the confederates giving commentaries of neutral, critical, or derogatory tone. Subsequently, Ss had the opportunity to punish the confederate with what they thought were varying degrees of shock. As predicted, after high self-disclosure, Ss used significantly greater levels of shock than Ss in the control and low-self-disclosure groups. Criticism was more clearly effective than derogation in producing aggression. Findings indicate that high self-disclosure, followed by personal threat, is a potent antecedent of angry aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer reviewer evaluations and evaluations of peer reviewers: Effects of theoretical orientation.

Investigated the effects of both provider and reviewer theoretical orientation on the evaluation of treatment in the context of document-based peer review and on the consequent evaluation of the reviews themselves. 141 staff members from 35 university counseling centers were assigned to 1 of 2 treatment groups, each of which received different combinations of client problems (depression and anxiety) and provider theoretical orientation (psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral); each S reviewed 2 sets of treatment documents composed of 2 of the 4 treatment combinations. There was no relationship between quality of review and theoretical orientation of the reviewer or treatment provider and no relationship between theoretical orientation and reimbursement recommendations. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Uncertainty orientation, the self, and others: Individual differences in values and social comparison.

97 undergraduates completed materials from which uncertainty orientation was assessed. Several months later, 60 of the Ss were asked to complete an abbreviated version of G. W. Allport and P. E. Vernon's (1931) values survey. Subsequently, they were shown their scores and permitted to view as many comparison scores as they wished. Uncertainty-oriented Ss (UCOSs) viewed more comparison scores than did certainty-oriented Ss (COSs). This occurred regardless of whether they believed that the scores came from a similar (student) or dissimilar (community) sample or of how important the specific value was to them. UCOSs also scored higher than COSs in theoretical and aesthetic values on the values survey, reflecting an interest in trying to understand one's world. COSs scored higher in religious values. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of ego threat upon persuasibility for high and low self-esteem subjects.

A conceptual model of persuasibility is presented, based upon its relationship to self-esteem and defense mechanism preference. An experiment designed to test some deductions from the model is reported, in which it is hypothesized that an experience of failure in the performance of a need-related behavior will decrease persuasibility for high self-esteem Ss and increase persuasibility for lows. Male VA domiciliary residents were divided into 4 groups, consisting of high or low self-esteem persons receiving failure treatment or no treatment immediately prior to a test of persuasibility. The predicted interaction effect between levels of self-esteem and experimental conditions upon persuasibility scores was considered supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of self-esteem lability and low trait self-esteem as vulnerability factors for depression.

Self-esteem lability (SEL), defined as daily event-related variability in state self-esteem, and low trait self-esteem (TSE) were assessed among 205 male and female undergraduates who were currently depressed, previously depressed (PD), and never depressed (ND). SEL scores were derived for the effect of positive, negative, and combined events on state self-esteem over 30 days. Consistent with psychodynamic and cognitive theories, SEL was found to be a better index of depression proneness than TSE. PD Ss showed higher lability on all SEL scores than ND controls but did not differ from controls on TSE. Ss were reassessed 5 mo later, and new cases showed higher premorbid SEL than ND controls but did not differ from controls on premorbid TSE. SEL at Time 1 was found to increase risk for depression at Time 2 among Ss reporting high life stress at Time 2. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of group counseling on self-esteem.

Investigated the influence of group counseling on self-esteem, anxiety, depression, and hostility in 3 groups of adult women: 24 middle-class women; 9 women who received provincial social assistance (i.e., longer than 3 mo); and 15 who received city social assistance (i.e., less than 3 mo). All Ss completed pre- and posttests of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale and the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List before and after a series of group counseling sessions on practical, personal, and social issues. Results show that the women receiving provincial social assistance had significant changes in the level of self-esteem; it is suggested that these women, nearly half of whom were either single or divorced (compared with Ss who received city social assistance who were almost all separated and the middle-class Ss who were almost all married), perceived a need change in their lives. Because of their relatively stable marital and financial status (i.e., husbands gone for some time and social assistance providing funds), they were not forced to spend a good deal of time in self-exploration and were consequently responsive to treatment. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)