State of the Art Review: Water pricing reform in China

This paper reviews water pricing reform in China after 1980, including framework, process, forces and considerations. China collects a water resources fee, a water supply tariff for hydraulic engineering, an urban water supply tariff, a wastewater collection and treatment tariff, and a pollutant discharge fee. The reform has been an exploration process. In theory, a comprehensive, systematic and advanced policy and framework have been developed. However, in practice, the reforms fluctuate among economic, social and environmental targets; do not comply with the reform objectives; and are heavily affected by external social and economic factors rather than by internal factors.     

Non-water factors in water governance and their implications for water sustainability: The case of Ontario’s water use reduction policy

Despite longstanding interest in reducing water use in Ontario, Canada’s most populous province, public policy responses have tended to be restricted to the water sector’s traditional remit, e.g., improving public access to water data. However, it is not clear that these type of measures will be enough to address concerns over water quantity and advance water sustainability, as they are tied to other socio-economic concerns, external to the water sector. The purpose of this study is to understand the range of external factors that influenced the development and implementation of the water use reduction (WUR) policy in Ontario, and to identify opportunities for harnessing these factors to advance WUR objectives. To do so, we propose a diagnostic framework that maps external factors in relation to a specific water governance situation. We carried out 13 semi-structured interviews and reviewed 56 documents. We combined deductive and inductive approaches to content analysis. We found many non-water factors influencing the governance of WUR in Ontario. Particularly, the economic development provincial objective strongly shaped Ontario’s WUR policy by influencing the adoption of a demand management approach centering on water efficiency, rather than conservation. Furthermore, the WUR policy primarily serves the economic development objective. An implication is that water policies can be used instrumentally, raising the question of what constitutes a “water policy”. In summary, this study argues that non-water factors can thus influence our path to water sustainability, in this case represented by the water conservation approach, by defining an enabling (or hindering), institutional framework.     

基于主成分回归与灰色神经网络模型的水资源承载力需水量预测

我国的水资源利用问题日趋严峻。作为影响水资源承载力的重要因素,社会经济活动对水资源的影响尤为明显。通过分析影响水资源承载力的社会经济驱动要素,建立主成分回归模型,分析得出影响江苏省水资源承载力变化的三个驱动力以及驱动力影响度,利用三个驱动力中的6个重要驱动因子,建立灰色神经网络预测模型,预测出江苏省2012-2013年的年需水量。结果表明:预测模型精度较高,最后结合江苏省发展现状提出相关的政策性建议。     

我国城市综合节水管理框架构建及节水管理现状分析

为了提高城市节水管理的系统性和协调性,提出构建城市综合节水管理框架。利用城市综合节水管理框架理论,通过对政策与规划、管理机构建设和管理手段选择等3个方面的分析,揭示我国节水在管理政策制定、管理协调机制、用水需求控制和非传统水源开发利用方面存在的问题;并提出增强政策关联和配套程度,加强机构的协调配合,建立高效的水需求管理和统筹规划多种水源的建议。     

水生态恢复的经济学思考--对海河流域水生态恢复研究的几点建议

水生态恢复是恢复并维持退化水生态系统的服务功能的人类经济活动。导致水生态系统退化的原因多种多样,而人类经济活动的不当是主要的作用因子。在研究海河流域水生态恢复的过程中,有必要对传统不合理的水事经济制度诱发水生态系统退化的机理和过程开展系统研究、对水生态恢复目标预期可能实现的经济效益进行认真评价以及对推动水生态恢复的水权制度和排污权制度改革提出构想,同时探讨一下水生态恢复产业化的政策框架和机构设置。     

Sustainable Urban Water System Transitions Through Management Reforms in Ghana

Despite decades of water reforms, Ghana’s struggle to achieve sustainable urban water system is deepened by complex interactions of multi-layered political, socio-economic and managerial characteristics, leaving a rationing system of water supply in major cities like Accra. Using a multi-level perspective framework, the paper examines the dynamics of urban water system transition through management reforms. The study showed how external pressure at the landscape level influenced policy direction within urban water regime through the implementation of neo-liberal economic policies, paving way for resistance and grassroots innovation at the niche level. The implementation of such policies in the reform process did little to help achieve the desired sustainable urban water system goals. The paper suggests a blend of public and private financing with support for grassroots to improve urban water system management. However, subsequent urban water policy reforms must be informed by knowledge of social, economic, and political realities rather than imported generic “best policies and practices” that often conflict with local realities.     

我国水安全问题的系统治理思路与实施建议

水安全问题是涉及社会经济、行政管理、农田用水、工业用水、生活用水、水污染、气象科学技术、水利科学技术等横跨社会科学、自然科学、工程技术的大问题。系统治理是立足于山水林田湖生命共同体,统筹自然生态各要素,解决水安全问题的根本出路。分析了中国水安全问题的严峻形势,运用系统工程理论方法剖析了解决水安全问题需要重点把握的十个方面,提出了可操作性的实施建议。     

Water services industry reforms in Malaysia

Concerted efforts to reform and transform the water industry in Malaysia began in 2006. It was a visionary effort by the federal government to ensure an adequate supply of clean water to the public and industry. A policy and institutional framework was created to re-invent and transform the water services industry into an efficient and sustainable sector that will play a pivotal role as one of the major components of economic growth. Though minor adjustments may be needed during its implementation, the overall policy direction is pragmatic and viable and has started to produce tangible outcomes.     

城市水系统关联模型研究

为了理清城市水系统中多因素间的复杂关系,对系统解决城市水问题提供帮助,基于水系统理论与城市水系统模拟相关研究,提出了城市水系统中水-经济社会-生态环境各因素之间相互作用和反馈的关联模型理论框架,建立了城市水系统演变过程中由针对经济发展的正反馈回路和针对可持续性的负反馈回路共同控制的新模式,构建了模拟城市水-经济社会-生态环境内在联系的城市水系统关联模型。以武汉市为例,应用建立的城市水系统关联模型,采用2001—2017年的历史统计数据,建立了武汉市城市水-经济社会-生态环境各要素之间互馈作用的模拟模型,预测了武汉市的城市发展轨迹,并与武汉市2030年的远期规划进行比较,验证了模型的有效性,表明城市水系统模型能够揭示城市水-经济社会-生态环境多要素的耦合驱动机制,体现了节水技术与绿色发展相关政策两大因子导向下的生态环境、经济社会协同发展的良好预期。     

Policy Options to Improve Water Allocation Efficiency: Analysis on Egypt and Morocco

Abstract

Because of political risk, economic feasibility, and cultural concerns, it has been a great challenge for economists to provide palatable remedies to governments to promote water allocation efficiency. Considering the limitation of water pricing to irrigation water, this research addresses questions of which strategic policy alternatives to water pricing might improve irrigation water allocation efficiency. An empirical framework is provided to compare irrigation policies for allocating scarce water to agricultural production in Egypt and Morocco. Partial-equilibrium agricultural sector models specific to Egypt and Morocco were employed for policy tests. Consumer and producer surplus from agricultural based commodities is maximized subject to various resources, technical, and policy constraints. Positive Mathematical Programming (PMP) was used to calibrate the model. Water pricing policy, water complementary input factor tax policy, and output tax policy are tested using these two agricultural sector models. Results suggest that effective policy depends on the social, economic, and environmental contexts of specific regions. For countries like Egypt where most agricultural land is irrigated, taxes on Nitrogen (N) fertilizer and energy and output tax on water-intensive and low profit crop production may be more effective than others. For the Moroccan case, taxation on crop inputs and outputs not only affect water use in the public irrigation sector, but also private irrigation sector and rain-fed as a whole. Water pricing and output tax policies are better suited and effective than water complementary input factor taxation. Findings from Morocco might be generalized to other countries with similar irrigation characteristics and diversity in irrigated (public and private) and rain-fed land. The results for both countries demonstrate that some of the strategic irrigation policies can work towards directing cropping decisions to less water intensive crops and also generating revenues for governments in situations where governments choose not to price water.     

大型调水工程两部制水价优化模型

在国家现行水价政策的框架内,针对胶东调水工程的实际情况,确定了两部制水价的具体形 式;在综合考虑供水工程的经济安全、用水地区的利益、供需不确定性以及水价承受力的基础上,建 立了两部制水价长期优化模型;利用改进的大M法和混合整数规划技术将模型转化为可计算形式, 并以威海为例计算了水价方案;能够为国内同类大型调水工程的水价决策提供借鉴。     

System Dynamics Analysis for Managing Iran’s Zayandeh-Rud River Basin

Within river basins different social, economic, political and physical subsystems interact. When making decisions, policy makers should be aware of such interactions as any new policy will affect more than one subsystem. To determine the adequacy of a specific management policy, an integrated study is needed of a complicated water management system in the basin considering major physical, social, economic and political aspects. The Zayandeh-Rud river basin, in central Iran with a semi-arid climate and large agricultural, industrial and domestic water uses, is an example of a complicated watershed system where the lack of complete knowledge about all the interacting subsystems has led to failure of the policy makers in addressing the water shortage in the basin. Although water shortages occur fairly soon after completion of each new water source, transbasin water diversion is still the major policy of water planners to address ongoing shortages. System dynamics provides a unique framework for integrating the disparate physical, socio-economic and political systems important to watershed management. This approach is used to comprehend the interactions of different drivers of the problem and to convey the experiences, lessons learned, and perceptions gained during the model development process. A simulation model, built based on causal loop diagrams of the problem, shows that transbasin diversion is not the best and only solution to the problem. The results of the model for different scenarios suggest that various options of demand management and population control can be more effective in addressing the water crisis of the basin when combined with transbasin water diversions, increasing water storage capacity and controlling of groundwater withdrawal.     

Water quality and non-point sources of risk: the Jiulong River Watershed, P. R. of China

Retrospective water quality assessment plays an essential role in identifying trends and causal associations between exposures and risks, thus it can be a guide for water resources management. We have developed empirical relationships between several time-varying social and economic factors of economic development, water quality variables such as nitrate-nitrogen, COD(Mn), BOD(5), and DO, in the Jiulong River Watershed and its main tributary, the West River. Our analyses used alternative statistical methods to reduce the dimensionality of the analysis first and then strengthen the study's causal associations. The statistical methods included: factor analysis (FA), trend analysis, Monte Carlo/bootstrap simulations, robust regressions and a coupled equations model, integrated into a framework that allows an investigation and resolution of the issues that may affect the estimated results. After resolving these, we found that the concentrations of nitrogen compounds increased over time in the West River region, and that fertilizer used in agricultural fruit crops was the main risk with regard to nitrogen pollution. The relationships we developed can identify hazards and explain the impact of sources of different types of pollution, such as urbanization, and agriculture.     

Water management in India: the multiplicity of views and solutions

Abstract

There is very limited scientific evidence to support some of the ideas in the water sector that guide India’s government policies in these sectors. Further, the interdisciplinary perspective required for the design of economic instruments, institutions, and laws and regulations to implement existing policies is lacking in social scientists. This article discusses the growing debate on water management options for India, the tone and tenor of policy debate and the inconsistency. It summarizes 10 scholarly articles from various authors which reflect the multiplicity of views on water issues and solutions for water management in the country.     

An Inexact Two-Stage Water Resources Allocation Model for Sustainable Development and Management Under Uncertainty

In this study, an inexact two-stage water resources allocation (ITWR) model is put forward for supporting sustainable development and management of water resources in Sanjiang Plain, China, which is in such a situation, with multi-water source, multi-water supply subarea, multi-water user and multi-planning goal. The costs of net system, water supply and recourse are analyzed. The developed ITWR model, which shows a strong ability in tacking with various uncertain factors in probability distributions and discrete interval numbers, mixes the techniques of interval-parameter programming (IPP) and two-stage stochastic programming (TSP) within a general optimization framework. And it also has formed an effective link in such a conflict between the policy scenarios and the associated various levels of economic penalties, when the pre-allocation targets of water resources are violated. Based on this model, a series of scenarios under different levels of pre-allocation water is done and different degrees of water surplus and shortage are obtained correspondingly. The results indicate that the reasonable distribution plans with maximum system benefit and minimum system-failure risk have been generated. And these results are valuable for saving water resources to realize its sustainable development and mitigating the penalty to gain economic benefits maximum, and thus some desired results are provided for decision makers in tackling with a complex and uncertain water-resource system.     

再生水利用激励机制研究

针对我国再生水事业推进缓慢、再生水利用激励措施不健全等突出问题,初步探析了我国再生水利用激励机制的基本框架,系统地阐述了该机制的激励理论和建立过程。再生水利用激励机制是一种政府作为激励主体,对从事再生水生产的企业和用户产生激励作用的框架体系。通过对激励过程理论、马斯洛需求层次理论的分析,指出了当前再生水利用不同主体在激励过程面临的障碍,结合激励机制理论和环境经济学原理,提出了促进再生水利用经济外部性内部化的主要途径和激励手段。再生水利用激励机制将政府、再生水企业、用户有效地结合起来,妥善处理其中的利益关系,从而推动我国再生水市场健康发展。     

水资源空间均衡理论应用规则和量化方法

空间均衡是新时期水利发展的重要导向,是水利工作开展所需要遵循的基本要求。如何实现水资源空间均衡管控是水利发展的重要内容和挑战。在前期水资源空间均衡理论方法及应用框架研究的基础上,阐述了水资源空间均衡的理论需求及基本原理,以回答“为什么要实施水资源空间均衡？”; 介绍了水资源空间均衡的理论体系框架与主要内容,以回答“水资源空间均衡理论是什么？”; 提出了水资源空间均衡理论的应用规则和量化方法,以回答“水资源空间均衡理论如何应用？”。其应用规则包括遵循三大规律、符合三条原则、承担四项任务、具备三大功能,是正确应用水资源空间均衡理论的守则。其量化方法包括水资源空间均衡判别准则量化、水资源空间均衡度计算、水资源空间均衡优化模型、水资源空间均衡规划方法、水资源空间均衡预警评价与综合调控。研究认为,水资源空间均衡理论是指导区域或流域水利乃至综合空间均衡发展的一个重要支撑,为完善水资源空间均衡理论、落实空间均衡管控提供了解决途径和具体方法。     

农业非点源污染控制的补贴政策

针对我国目前的农业非点源污染特点、成因,借鉴吸收国外相关领域的研究成果及成功经验,从理论上对控制农业污染的补贴政策进行了阐述,着重从正外部性行为的补贴、对减少负外部性行为的补贴及产品价格补贴等方面,对补贴对象、资金来源和补贴额度等方面进行探讨。最后选择北京市重要水源地的潮河流域(密云县境内)为政策设计示范区,估算了对农民环保行为给予补贴、补偿的额度,提出本区以鼓励扶持引导为主、收费惩罚为辅控制削减农业污染的经济政策构想,对政策的经济、技术及制度方面进行了分析评价。     

水源地生态补偿机制实证研究——基于钱塘江源头核心区的调研

生态补偿问题已成为被关注的热点。通过全面考察水源地保护区农民生活、生产的现状,重点探讨了影响水源地保护区农民生产、生活的制约因素,以及农民对新型水源地经济发展模式的需求及意愿。根据研究,生态保护成为制约水源地经济发展的重要因素,且生态保护与经济发展的矛盾会随着国家对环保重视程度的日益加强而愈演愈烈。在认真分析影响制约当地经济发展因素和农民需求与意愿的基础上,提出了完善政策扶持机制、以项目带动经济补偿、初步建立有益于生态补偿的财政转移支付形式、加快建立水源地环境资源评估与保护标准体系等建议。