金属塑性加工的物理模拟

物理模拟是进行体积成形工艺研究和生产设计的重要工具方法 ,这种方法简捷、直观 ,还可以预测材料流动情况、填充情况和工艺缺陷形成过程。本文介绍了利用北欧新型模拟材料“菲蜡” ( Filia)进行体积成形物理模拟实验的方法、原理、设备装置、模具和模拟材料的特性。对圆柱坯料的自由镦粗、正挤、反挤、管件变薄挤压、平板坯料平面应变镦粗进行了物理模拟 ,分析讨论了物理模拟实验结果 ,并与上限模拟软件的结果进行了对比。     

Using contrast material techniques to determine metal flow in screw extrusion of aluminium

Screw extrusion is a new continuous solid state processing method for aluminium. In this process, small pieces of aluminium are continuously inserted into a container wherein a rotating screw pushes the material forward. The material is heated, consolidated and extruded through a die in front of the end of the screw in one single continuous process. Understanding the material flow and the pressure generating mechanism is vital for optimizing screw, container and die designs, thereby increasing capacity, material quality and process stability. Full scale experiments using a prototype extruder were chosen as the means of investigation. In this paper, it is reported on the development of a novel contrast material technique to visualize material flow in the screw channels and the extrusion chamber. Extrusion of Ø 10 mm aluminium profiles was performed using both single and double flight screws. The experimental technique provided a means for evaluating the frictional conditions between the aluminium and the surface of the extruder. Different feeding schemes were used to identify regions of high material flow rate together with dead metal zones in the screw channels and in the extrusion chamber. It is demonstrated how newly fed material interacts with and displaces material already present and how the screw pushes material into the extrusion chamber. The instantaneous extrusion velocity was measured and significant variations were detected for all feed rates. An explanatory model of the extrusion pressure generating mechanism in the extrusion chamber and the screw channel is presented linking the material flow and the consolidation process to the extrusion velocity variations.     

圆柱直齿轮超塑挤压的试验研究

对圆柱直齿轮的超塑性挤压进行了试验研究，其中挤压方式为径向挤压，试验材料为铅锡合金。试验中为降低成形力，采用了孔分流法。试验结果表明，用超塑挤压的方法加工圆柱直齿轮是可行的。孔分流方法在降低成形载荷与改善充填性方面具有优点，对生产实践具有指导意义。     

Towards nett-shape manufacturing of tubular components

This paper summarizes the results of work-in-progress research with a self developed two-step radial extrusion technique in which a simple preforming operation has been added to the conventional radial extrusion process. The proposed technique requires only simple modifications of the tool. Finite element models conditioned from previous experiments in aluminum served as a design tool for elaborating the process sequence and tool geometry which prevents the development of certain flow failures occurring in the traditional radial extrusion. Metal experiments were performed to test the tool design. As a result, it was possible to verify that the range of shapes that can be produced starting from a tube has been extended. Comparisons between theoretical predictions and experimental measurements obtained for a typical flanged component are provided for material flow, geometrical profile, effective strain distribution and required forming load. Finally the potential of the two-step radial extrusion technique is illustrated for the radial extrusion of a closed die shaped component.     

Optimal extrusion die design to achieve flow balance

The design of a plane strain two-hole extrusion die is presented. This design example can be considered as a test case to judge the usefulness of the present method in the design of extrusion dies for uniform exit flow. Bearings for this die are to be designed so that the material exits both holes with parallel balanced flow. The finite-element method combined with techniques of mathematical programming is adopted. Derivatives of the objective function used during the optimization phase are efficiently computed using analytical sensitivity analysis and an optimal bearing length is reached after few iterations of the optimization procedure. Available experimental data for a two-out extrusion die with bearings have been used to validate the numerical results.     

An upper-bound solution for axisymmetric extrusion of composite rods through curved dies

The study is concerned with an analysis of forward extrusion of composite rods through curved dies. A kinematically admissible velocity field is derived by assuming proper streamlines and applying the flow function concept to each material region of plastic deformation. Two kinds of flow functions are chosen in order to compare the effect of the choice of the flow functions. The effect of work-hardening is incorporated approximately by calculating the strains at the exit of both materials. The upper-bound method is then employed to determine the extrusion pressure for various process variables. The experiments are carried out with commercially pure aluminum and copper billets for various reductions of area and cone angles at room temperature. The experimental results are then compared with the theoretical calculations. The comparison shows that the second-order flow function is in better agreement with the experimental observation both in extrusion loads and in deforming regions.     

Microimprinting of nanocrystalline metals – Influence of microstructure and work hardening

The microimprinting behaviour of a wide variety of materials with grain sizes ranging from 25 nm up to a few mm was studied, using a flat punch indenter with a circular cavity with a diameter of 5 μm and a cavity line width of 350 nm. The flat punch die was fabricated by focussed ion beam machining. The imprinted ring geometry has been evaluated using atomic force microscopy in terms of extrusion height, relative to residual imprinting depth. The experimental work was complemented by Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of the forming process, using experimentally determined stress–strain data of the imprinted materials as input for the finite element simulations. Even so only macroscopic properties of the materials have been used for the modelling, both experiment and simulation yield comparable results. However, the relative extrusion height from FEA are much larger compared to the experimental results. It is found that grain size and the subsequent work hardening behaviour of the material has a strong influence on the local flow behaviour during imprinting. Nanocrystalline materials with nearly ideal-plastic deformation behaviour exhibit the best formability. The influence of the work hardening behaviour on the local flow of the material during microimprinting is moreover confirmed by imprinting of a pre-strained material. A reduction in the work hardenability of the material leads to an increasing microflow during microimprinting.     

双凸模差速挤压方形弯曲管件工艺过程有限元模拟

提出通过控制不同凸模的压下速度并调节挤压管件的弯曲曲率,实现弯曲管件一次性挤压成形的新方法。采用有限元法模拟了弯曲管件双凸模差速挤出过程,分析了双凸模挤压过程速度场分布、材料流动规律、挤压力、应力场和应变场的分布。     

Numerical modelling of the material flow during extrusion of aluminium alloys and transverse weld formation

A comprehensive numerical model of the hot extrusion process for aluminium alloys has been developed and validated. Reflecting the complex thermomechanical changes effected in the alloys during extrusion, the model incorporated heat flow and plastic deformation during extrusion. This paper presents the overall numerical development of a hot extrusion process for AA3003 and validation of the numerical model, by comparison to industrial data. The plasticity module was developed using a commercial finite element package, DEFORM^®, a 2-D transient Lagrangian model which couples the thermal and deformation phenomena and is able to predict the temperature, strain rate and strain distribution in the billet/extrudate at any position in the container and die. A new algorithm using MATLAB was also developed so that details of the material flow and formation of the transverse weld and how it is affected by the feeder geometry could be quantified. Validation of the DEFORM model and the MATLAB algorithm of the material flow against industrial data indicated that it gave excellent predictions of the pressure and temperature history during extrusion as well as material flow effects such as surface cladding as one billet is fed in after another through the die. The results indicated that the die feeder design has a significant effect on the transverse weld formation with tapered dies showing lower transverse weld lengths compared to regular feeder plates.     

Experimental investigation of embedding high strength reinforcements in extrusion profiles

Embedding reinforcement or functional wires in extruded profiles offers the potential to increase mechanical properties as well as the field of application. With improved strength and stiffness and an integrated function as deformation sensor or data transmitter the weight of space frame structures can be reduced substantially. To comprehend the general conditions when embedding the reinforcement and functional elements during the extrusion process, experimental extrusion investigations have been carried out for the analysis of significant process and tool geometry parameters.Extrusion with porthole dies, i.e. by feeding the elements over bridges inside the die in the aluminum base material flow, was studied to manufacture continuous reinforced, thin-walled, and hollow profiles. Special care was taken to ensure an accurate positioning in the transient material flow to prevent a loss of functionality by insufficient covering and loss of positioning caused by the die geometry or unequal temperature distribution inside the die. Studies on different reinforcement wires and wire ropes based on high strength steel are presented, showing an increasing process stability when using solid wires. General process restrictions are analyzed and process guidelines are presented based on exemplary extrusions.     

Process Parameter Investigations of Backward Extrusion for Various Aluminum Shaped Section Tubes Using FEM Analysis

In this article, a FEM investigation has been carried out to analyze the backward extrusion of aluminum tubes which have internally and externally shaped sections. ABAQUS/Explicit finite element method was used to solve the problem. As a result, the distribution of stress, strain, and spatial velocity in the deformation region were obtained. Grid deformation patterns were also studied using the FE simulation to observe the material flow during the process. Initial billets with various cross sections such as rectangular, elliptical, hexagonal, octagonal, and square shapes were utilized in the simulations. Also various shaped punches such as circular and elliptical sections were employed for this analysis. In this article, the influence of the process parameters such as friction factor and reduction in area on the extrusion pressure was studied. The effects of reduction of area and friction factor on the configuration of free surface and velocity field have been investigated too. The results obtained from the present study were compared with analytical and experimental works and acceptable agreements were observed.     

挤压速度和摩擦状态对铝型材挤压过程的影响

挤压速度和摩擦状态是铝型材挤压过程中的重要工艺条件,对挤压产品的质量、挤压力、模具寿命和生产率等具有直接影响。文章以一异型铝型材挤压件为例,采取塑性剪切摩擦模型,使用3种挤压速度和6种摩擦因子的不同组合分别进行挤压过程数值模拟,得到不同参数下模具受力、挤压件温度分布变化及材料流动速度的变化等情况,研究讨论了挤压速度和摩擦状态对铝型材挤压过程的影响规律。研究结果为挤压生产实践提供了一定的理论指导与参考。     

两种数值模拟方法在铝合金挤压模具优化设计中的对比

利用MSC.Marc和MSC.SuperForge两种数值模拟软件对铝合金挤压棒材件进行分析对比,有限体积法在工程应用中对大挤压比、形状复杂的型材的挤压成形计算具有较大的优势.针对平面导流模具和分流模具对其在挤压过程中坯料的应力分布和速度场分布进行了详细的比较分析,发现坯料应力的分布与工作带高度的设定、出材的流动是否均衡没有直接的联系.     

Investigation of Process Parameters for the Backward Extrusion of Arbitrary-Shaped Tubes from Round Billets Using Finite Element Analysis

Process simulation for the backward extrusion of internally arbitrary-shaped tubes from circular billets is presented in this article. ABAQUS/Explicit finite element method has been used to analyze the problem. This kind of analysis has been done before using analytical methods such as the upper bound theorem. However, the FEM solution presented here is the first of its kind. Values of stress, strain, and spatial velocity at different points in the deformation field were obtained. To observe the flow of the material during the process, grid deformations were also produced for the backward extrusion using the FEM package. Circular shape for the initial billet and arbitrary shapes for the final tube’s cross sections were considered and FEM solutions were given for each. The shapes considered were elliptical, rectangular, and circular-shaped tubes and circular billets. The variation of extrusion load for the backward extrusion process was obtained for different values of reduction of area, aspect ratio, and friction factor. Also, the effect of these parameters on velocity field and free surface configuration were investigated in this simulation. The results produced from this work were compared with the theoretical and experimental results of other workers and good agreements were observed and some improvements in some of the results were also seen.     

铝合金内腔网格筋件挤压成形数值模拟研究

利用有限元分析软件MARC／superform对带网格筋的桶形件成形进行了数值模拟，得到了变形过程的金属流动规律，合理的工艺参数，为成形此类零件提供了参考。     

Influence of punch geometries on the divided material flow in a double cup extrusion process

This paper provides an analysis of the deformation patterns in a backward can extrusion combined simultaneously with a forward can extrusion process, which is known as a double cup extrusion process. The main objective of this study is to examine the divided material flow characteristics in DCEP. Analyses were conducted in a numerical manner by employing a rigid-plastic finite element method. Among many process parameters, the major design factors chosen for analysis include the reduction in area (RAB), the wall thickness ratio (TR), the punch nose radius (R), and the friction condition. The simulation results were summarized in terms of relationships between the process parameters and the ratios of extruded length and volume, and between the process parameters and force requirements, respectively. Comparisons between a multi-stage forming process in sequential operations and one-stage combined operation were also made in terms of the forming load and pressure exerted on the tool. The force requirement and self-regulating characteristics were more greatly influenced by the wall thickness ratio among the selected major design factors. And more severe load to form the same shape is expected in sequential operations than in a combined extrusion process.     

Experimental investigation into cutting forces and active grain density during abrasive flow machining

It is important to know cutting force components and active grain density during abrasive flow machining (AFM) as this information could be used to evaluate the mechanism involved in AFM. The results show that cutting force components and active grain density govern the surface roughness produced during AFM process. In this paper, an attempt has been made to study the influence of these two parameters, namely cutting force and active grain density, on the surface roughness. This study will help in developing a more realistic theoretical model.The present paper highlights a suitable two-component disc dynamometer for measuring axial and radial force components during AFM. The influence of three controllable variables (extrusion pressure, abrasive concentration and grain size) on the responses (material removal, reduction in surface roughness (R_a value), cutting forces and active grain density) are studied. The preliminary experiments are conducted to select the ranges of variables by using single-factor experimental technique. Five levels for abrasive concentration and six levels for extrusion pressure and abrasive grain size were used. A statistical 2³ full factorial experimental technique is used to find out the main effect, interaction effect and contribution of each variable to the machined workpiece surface roughness. The machined surface textures are studied using a scanning electron microscope.     

Bending of extruded profiles during extrusion process

Direct bending of extruded aluminium profiles during the extrusion process has numerous advantages in comparison to the conventional cold bending process. Since the workpiece is still warm during the bending process, the spring-back phenomenon can be avoided. Smaller bending radii can be produced in a single step. There are several basic differences among the existing methods. Some methods influence the material flow during the extrusion, so that a curved profile leaves the extrusion die. Other methods use a bending apparatus, which is placed directly behind the extrusion die. Based on the FEM-simulation results experimental investigations were performed on 8MN extrusion press.     

On ultrasonic assisted abrasive flow finishing of bevel gears

Finishing of bevel gears is an important requirement in many machining shop floors. Variants of abrasive flow machining (AFM) could be plausible solutions for finishing such parts with intricate geometries. In the present work, a relatively new variant of AFM called ultrasonically assisted abrasive flow machining (UAAFM) technique was employed to finish bevel gears made of EN8 steel. An analysis of the process has been presented with suitable illustrations. A finite element simulation of the behavior of the medium during finishing of bevel gears using the UAAFM process has been presented. A 3D model was constructed to simulate the flow of medium through the outer wall of the gear tooth surface using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach. The velocity, pressure and temperature values along the length of the workpiece were computed for both UAAFM and the conventional AFM processes. Further, the effectiveness of the process was investigated through experimental trials by conducting a comparison study between classical AFM and UAAFM. Ultrasonic frequency, extrusion pressure, processing time and the media flow rate were considered as the input variables while improvements in surface finish and material removal were considered as the monitored outputs. Results confirm that improvements in surface roughness and material removal are significantly higher than those obtained with conventional abrasive flow machining. The study further reveals that, the applied high frequency (ultrasonic) vibration to the workpiece has the maximum influence on the process responses among the variables considered.     

增塑粉末挤压成形新技术

以硬质合金材质体系为对象，针对目前主要的一类挤压成形设备－真空螺杆挤压机，开发出了一种增塑粉末挤压成形新技术。从理论上系统分析了成形过程的物理本质及粘结剂非等温脱脂机理与动力学，并推导出了一系列流变学材料函数。理论分析与实验相结合，开发出了一种多组元新粘剂设计与制备技术，优化了挤压工艺参数，制备了直径20mm的硬质合金挤压棒。