Marine magnetic anomalies off Ratnagiri,western continental shelf of India

Total magnetic intensity and bathymetric surveys were carried out in the offshore area of Ratnagiri on the western continental shelf of India and an isomagnetic anomalies map at a contour interval of 50 nT was prepared which reveals N-S trends of magnetic anomalies. Two-dimensional model and spectral studies of these anomalies were carried out, and subsurface models of the geology in the area have been derived from anomalies at a number of places. The results suggest that the anomalies occur over a magnetic crystalline basement at a depth of 1–1.2 km which is similar (in magnetization) to onshore basalts of northwest India. These anomalies are believed to be an expression of a considerable thickness (around 1.7 km) of basalt, underlain by sediments. Identification of these basalts in offshore areas along the northwestern continental shelf of India would support (1) the idea that the onshore Deccan basalts of western India and the rhyolitic tuffs at the Laccadive ridge system (DSDP Site 210) are related to the same volcanic events, and (2) subsequent downfaulting of onshore Deccan basalts into the Arabian Sea and submergence below the Tertiary sediments.     

Regional gravity and magnetic studies over the continental margin of the central west coast of India

Gravity studies over the continental margin of the central west coast of India show a sediment thickness of 2–3 km on the shelf associated with deeper horst and graben structures, of 6 km in the shelf margin basin, and about 1 km in the deep sea. The upward trend in free-air gravity anomaly toward the deep sea region is interpreted as crustal thinning. Model studies indicate a 25-km-thick crust in the shelf region and a minimum of 18 km in the more offshore region. An abrupt magnetic signature change suggests differential basement depths in the shelf region. Major faulting in the region is confirmed in water depths of approximately 100–200 m.     

Regional tectonic trends on the inner continental shelf off Konkan and Central West Coast of India

Satellite imagery and offshore magnetic data were analysed to correlate regional tectonic elements on the inner continental shelf off Konkan and the adjacent Deccan plateau. Three statistically important lineament trends—N-S, WNW-ESE and ENE-WSW—that prevail on land are correlatable well with the offshore trends. This positive correlation suggests simultaneous deformation. The major magnetic lineament observed off Jaigad Bay, west coast of India, may be the extension of onshore lineaments. The correlation of both the offshore and onshore trends indicates that the fracture pattern of the crystalline basement has also controlled the offshore structural pattern.     

Analysis of multi-channel seismic reflection and magnetic data along 13° N latitude across the Bay of Bengal

Analysis of the multi-channel seismic reflection, magnetic and bathymetric data collected along a transect, 1110 km long parallel to 13° N latitude across the Bay of Bengal was made. The transect is from the continental shelf off Madras to the continental slope off Andaman Island in water depths of 525 m to 3350 m and across the Western Basin (bounded by foot of the continental slope of Madras and 85° E Ridge), the 85° E Ridge, the Central Basin (between the 85° E Ridge and the Ninetyeast Ridge), the Ninetyeast Ridge and the Sunda Arc. The study revealed eight seismic sequences, H1 to H8 of parallel continuous to discontinuous reflectors. Considering especially depth to the horizons, nature of reflection and on comparison with the published seismic reflection results of Currayet al. (1982), the early Eocene (P) and Miocene (M) unconformities and the base of the Quaternary sediments (Q) are identified on the seismic section. Marked changes in velocities also occur at their boundaries.In the Western Basin the acoustic basement deepening landward is inferred as a crystalline basement overlain by about 6.7 km of sediment. In the Central Basin possibly thicker sediments than in the Western Basin are estimated. The sediments in the Sunda Arc area are relatively thick and appears to have no distinct horizons. But the entire sedimentary section appears to be consisting of folded and possibly faulted layers.The comparatively broader wavelength magnetic anomalies of the Central Basin also indicate deeper depth of their origin. Very prominent double humped feature of the 85° E Ridge and broad basement swell of the Ninetyeast Ridge are buried under about 2.8 km thick sediments except over the prominent basement high near 92° E longitude. The positive structural relief of the buried 85° E Ridge in the area is reflected in magnetic signature of about 450 nT amplitude. Flexural bulge of the 85° E Ridge and subsidence of the Ninetyeast Ridge about 24 cm my^–1 rate since early Eocene period have been inferred from the seismic sequence analysis.     

Possibility of Large Deposits of Gas Hydrates in Deeper Waters of India

The available geological and thermodynamic data, essential for the formation and accumulation of gas hydrates, have been integrated and broadly interpreted for the deeper waters of India. The preliminary studies indicate that, in all probability, vast gas hydrate resources exist in the shallow sediments under deep waters. The area of the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, off the coast of India and Andaman Islands, have accumulated thick sediments, over 22 and 10 km, respec tively, during collision of the Indian Plate with the Tibetan Plate. Bottom Simulating Reflectors (BSRs), indicating the likely presence of gas hydrates, have been observed from multichannel and single-channel seismic reflec tion data west of the Andaman Islands and Kerala-Konkan offshore. The Indian continental shelf, slope, and rise areas have, at places, shown the presence of gas-charged sediments and gas seeps through faults. There are commercial oil and gas fields in the shallow waters of both the east and west coasts of India. These are indicative of generation of both biogenic as well as thermogenic gases in the offshore areas of India. For the first time, an attempt has been made to estimate in-place gas hydrate resources under deep waters of India beyond 600 m water depth to the legal continental shelf boundary, and to the Andaman Islands. The gas hydrate resources appear to be vast, and require extensive exploratory efforts for their precise mapping and quantitative assessment.     

A marine magnetic survey off southern Iceland

Total-intensity magnetic anomalies observed in a 1973 survey reflect contrasts in the structure of the southern Iceland shelf respectively west and east of 20°W. The western part, which is wider and more evenly sloping than the eastern part, has subdued magnetic relief indicating basement (basalt) depth of at least 400 m. On the eastern part of the shelf there occur pronounced edge anomalies, apparently due to a basement step of at least 1 km mean thickness and of mean width 3–4 km. The distance from the upper edge of this basement step to the bathymetric shelf edge increases from 5–8 km at 19°W to 12–14 km at 14°30W. The basement has alternating magnetic polarities. Linear magnetic anomalies are indistinct or absent in the surveyed region. It is speculated that the sharp basement step represents the trace of the maximum southerly extent of the eastern volcanic zone of Iceland.     

Frequency of sediment movement on the Washington continental shelf: A note

Several independent sets of field data have been analyzed in order to estimate the frequency of sediment movement on the continental shelf off Washington over an annual period and to identify the major components of the bottom velocity field causing this motion. Sediment motions resulting from: (1) bottom currents caused by surface wind stress and tides, and (2) wave-induced oscillatory bottom currents have been investigated. Analysis of a 260-day current record from 3 m off the seabed at 80 m depth on the continental shelf and a 205-day open-ocean wave record collected on Cobb Seamount 465 km west of the Washington coast suggest that the threshold of sediment motion was exceeded for approximately 22 days per year as a result of mean currents (20 min time averaged) and approximately 53 days per year from wave-induced oscillatory currents. Substantial variations can be expected from year to year, so these values represent order of magnitude estimates.     

Continental margin off Lofoten-Vesterålen northern Norway

The continental margin off the Lofoten-Vesterålen islands between 67° and 70°N becomes progressively narrower northwards. The continental shelf west of the islands and in the Vestfjord is underlain by a relatively thin sedimentary sequence which has been subjected to block faulting, forming local basins and highs. The structural deformation had ceased in the mid-Creataceous. The Tertiary sediments are generally missing, but reappear in the Træn Basin south of about 67.5°N. The continental margin seaward of the shelf edge changes structural style from south to north. In the north, the marginal subsidence is characterized by major faults, whereas minor faults and flexuring dominate south of 69°N. A smooth acoustic basement reflector, which in places is underlain by dipping sub-basement interfaces, is typical for the area between anomaly 23 and the Vøring Plateau Escarpment. In the northern area, the acoustic basement extends almost to the shelf edge. These observations relate to the early Tertiary history of rifting and passive margin formation within a preexisting epicontinental sea between Norway and Greenland. The abrupt change from continental to oceanic basement is defined by the extension of the Vøring Plateau Escarpment south of 69.1°N and by the change in magnetic character off Vesterålen.     

Dispersal of the Zhujiang River (Pearl River) derived sediment in the Holocene

High-resolution Chirp profiling and coring reveals an elongated(ca. 400 km) Holocene Zhujiang River(Pearl River)-derived mud area(maximum thickness 20 m) extending from the Zhujiang River Delta, southwestward off the Guangdong coast, to the Leizhou Peninsula. Two depo-centers, one proximal and one distal, are identified. On the continental shelf off the west Guangdong Province, the mud is deposited in water depth shallower than 50 m; while to the southeast of the Zhujiang River Estuary, the mud area can extend to the-120 m isobath. A combined analysis with the stratigraphic sequences of other muddy deposits in the Western Pacific marginal seas(mainly Changjiang(Yangtze) and Huanghe(Yellow) Rivers derived) indicates that the initiation of the Zhujiang River muddy deposit can be further divided into two stages: Stage 1 is before the mid-Holocene sea-level highstand(ca. 7.0 cal. ka BP), the proximal mud was mostly deposited after 9.0 cal. ka BP, when the sea-level rose slowly after the Meltwater Pulse-1C; Stage 2, after the mid-Holocene sealevel highstand, clinoform developed on the continental shelf off the west Guangdong Province, extending ca. 400 km from the Zhujiang River Estuary. The proximal clinoform thins offshore, from ca. 10 m thickness around 5–10 m water depth to less than 1–2 m around 20–30 m water depth. In addition, we also find a developed distal clinoform in the east of the Leizhou Peninsula.     

Seismic refraction measurements on the Norwegian continental shelf between Andøya and Fugløybanken

A seismic refraction survey along nine profiles has been carried out on the Norwegian continental shelf in the area between Andøya and Fugløybanken (69°–71°N). In all but one of the profiles the shelf is found to be covered with layered sediments. Average velocities are 1.85, 2.20, 2,55, 3.25, and 3.90 km/s probably representing sediments of Cenozoic and Mesozoic ages. An average velocity of 5.25 km/s represents a basement, which probably is the seaward continuation of the onshore Caledonian rocks. Except for an apparent depressional area just north of Andøya the sedimentary layers appear to dip towards the shelf edge. On the outer part of the shelf the 2.20 km/s layer appears at the sea-floor while more complex structures are found on the inner part of the shelf.Publication No. 3 in NTNF's Continental Shelf Project.     

Tasmante cruise: Swath-mapping and underway geophysics south and west of Tasmania

The 1994 Tasmante swath-mapping and reflection seismic cruise covered 200 000 km² of sea floor south and west of Tasmania. The survey provided a wealth of morphological, structural and sedimentological information, in an area of critical importance in reconstructing the break-up of East Gondwana.The west Tasmanian margin consists of a non-depositional continental shelf less than 50 km wide and a sedimented continental slope about 100 km wide. The adjacent 20 km of abyssal plain to the west is heavily sedimented, and beyond that is lightly sedimented Eocene oceanic crust formed as Australia and Antarctica separated. The swath data revealed systems of 100 m-deep downslope canyons and large lower-slope fault-blocks, striking 320° and dipping landward. These continental blocks lie adjacent to the continent ocean boundary (COB) and are up to 2500 m high and have 15°–20° scarps.The South Tasman Rise (STR) is bounded to the west by the Tasman Fracture Zone extending south to Antarctica. Adjacent to the STR, the fracture zone is represented by a scarp up to 2000 m high with slopes of 15–20°. The scarp consists of continental faultblocks dipping landward. Beyond the scarp to the west is a string of sheared parallel highs, and beyond that is lightly sedimented Oligocene oceanic crust 4200–4600 m deep with distinct E-W spreading fabric. The eastern margin of the bathymetric STR trends about 320° and is structurally controlled. The depression between it and the continental East Tasman Plateau (ETP) is heavily sedimented; its western part is underlain by thinned continental crust and its central part by oceanic crust of Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary age. The southern margin of the STR is formed by N-S transform faults and south-dipping normal faults.The STR is cut into two major terrains by a N-S fracture zone at 146°15E. The western terrain is characterised by rotated basement blocks and intervening basins mostly trending 270°–290°. The eastern terrain is characterised by basement blocks and intervening strike-slip basins trending 300°–340°. Recent dredging of basement rocks suggests that the western terrain has Antarctic affinities, whereas the eastern terrain has Tasmanian affinities.Stretching and slow spreading between Australia and Antarctica was in a NW direction from 130–45 Ma, and fast spreading was in a N-S direction thereafter. The western STR terrain was attached to Antarctica during the early movement, and moved down the west coast of Tasmania along a 320° shear zone, forming the landward-dipping continental blocks along the present COB. The eastern terrain either moved with the western terrain, or was welded to it along the 146°15 E fracture zone in the Early Tertiary. At 45 Ma, fast spreading started in a N-S direction, and after some probable movement along the 146°15E fracture zone, the west and east STR terrains were welded together and became part of Australia.     

Spectral analyses of offshore magnetic data for computing depths to the basement rocks

This paper deals with the computation of the depth to the magnetic interface from the total magnetic field intensity values obtained along profiles in the offshore area between Vengurla and Rajapur bay off the West Coast of India, by the application of one dimensional spectral analysis method.From the response characteristics of the total field magnetic values it is surmised that the magnetic interface may be identified with the Deccan trap series of rocks which are likely to form the magnetic basement rocks in this area.The plot of depths to the basement rocks as obtained from spectral analysis indicates that the basement is sloping towards outer edge of the Continental Shelf though not uniformly.     

Ancient buried submarine trough,northwest Gulf of Mexico

A large buried submarine trough crosses the seaward margin of the continental shelf off the southwest coast of Louisiana. Original length was about 90 km, and width at the shelf edge was 16 km. Maximum eroded depth may have been as much as 305 m. Seismic characteristics of the prograded fill indicate cyclically repeated sequences of retrogressive deltaic and partly slumped sediments overlain by well-layered transgressive deposits. Slumping was increasingly prevalent toward the shelf edge. The cyclic sequences indicate that the trough was a passageway for large volumes of sediment onto the continental slope during several stages of lowered sea level.     

Structural interpretation of the Konkan basin,southwestern continental margin of India,based on magnetic and bathymetric data

Magnetic and bathymetric studies on the Konkan basin of the southwestern continental margin of India reveal prominent NNW-SSE, NW-SE, ENE-WSW, and WNW-ESE structural trends. The crystalline basement occurs at about 5–6 km below the mean sea level. A mid-shelf basement ridge, a shelf margin basin, and the northern extension of the Prathap Ridge complex are also inferred. The forces created by the sea-floor spreading at Carlsberg Ridge since late Cretaceous appears to shape the present-day southwestern continental margin of India and caused the offsets in the structural features along the preexisting faults.     

Direct measurements of coastal currents around southern New Zealand

Results are presented from direct measurements of subsurface currents at ten coastal positions around the southern half of New Zealand, and from geomagnetic electrokinetograph measurements of surface currents between these positions. Currents on the continental shelf were predominantly tidal. Strongest mean flows were found on the continental slope adjacent to areas where the continental shelf is narrowest. The flow on the west coast of the South Island was southwards south of 44° S, with a maximum mean speed at a depth of 100 m of 0.64 m.s^‐1. On the east coast of the South Island the flow was generally towards the north, with a maximum speed at a depth of 100 m of 0.21 m.s^‐1 near latitude 42° 30’ S.     

A geophysical transect of the Adélie Margin,East Antarctica

In 1982, a geophysical survey of the Antarctic margin, including multichannel seismic, gravity, magnetic and bathymetric surveying, was carried out off Adélie Coast-Wilkes Land and in the eastern Ross Sea. Of the 5000 km of lines recorded, 3000 km were in the Adélie Coast area. Lines ATC 101–102, approximately following meridian 138°E, show the first complete transect of the Adélie Coast margin from the Southeast Indian abyssal plain at DSDP Site 269 to the continental shelf. These lines reveal a thick sedimentary series divided into three main acoustic units by two major unconformities considered to be Upper Eocene (42 Ma) and late Oligocene (25 Ma). Oceanic or continental basement can be traced under the whole area, and the ocean-continent boundary clearly lies beneath the lower continental slope. A deep, high-amplitude, low-frequency horizon, extending under the oceanic basement for over 300 km of line, is considered to be the Moho. Our interpretation supports a recent revision be Cande and Mutter proposing an early Upper Cretaceous opening between Australia and East Antarctica.     

Fine-scale analysis of shelf–slope physiography across the western continental margin of India

We attempt here to quantify and model physiographic features off the central west coast of India in terms of power spectral exponent, amplitude parameter. We demonstrate that statistical analysis of multi-beam echo-sounder grid bathymetry data is able to characterise the outer shelf, upper slope, shelf margin basin and several structural rises in the region. A scatter diagram analysis shows that the seafloor data can be grouped into two distinct clusters. Distinctly different clustering patterns are observed over the structural rises, compared to the shelf, slope and basinal areas. This suggests different modes of formation for the members of these two clusters. In fact, the steep structural rises appear to be part of the NW–SE-trending coast-parallel Mid-Shelf Basement and Prathap ridges. These ridges are rift-induced volcanic emplacements on a stretched and thinned continental crust which probably formed during mid-Cretaceous times.     

Geology of the Continental Margin of Enderby and Mac. Robertson Lands, East Antarctica: Insights from a Regional Data Set

In 2001 and 2002, Australia acquired an integrated geophysical data set over the deep-water continental margin of East Antarctica from west of Enderby Land to offshore from Prydz Bay. The data include approximately 7700 km of high-quality, deep-seismic data with coincident gravity, magnetic and bathymetry data, and 37 non-reversed refraction stations using expendable sonobuoys. Integration of these data with similar quality data recorded by Japan in 1999 allows a new regional interpretation of this sector of the Antarctic margin. This part of the Antarctic continental margin formed during the breakup of the eastern margin of India and East Antarctica, which culminated with the onset of seafloor spreading in the Valanginian. The geology of the Antarctic margin and the adjacent oceanic crust can be divided into distinct east and west sectors by an interpreted crustal boundary at approximately 58° E. Across this boundary, the continent–ocean boundary (COB), defined as the inboard edge of unequivocal oceanic crust, steps outboard from west to east by about 100 km. Structure in the sector west of 58° E is largely controlled by the mixed rift-transform setting. The edge of the onshore Archaean–Proterozoic Napier Complex is downfaulted oceanwards near the shelf edge by at least 6 km and these rocks are interpreted to underlie a rift basin beneath the continental slope. The thickness of rift and pre-rift rocks cannot be accurately determined with the available data, but they appear to be relatively thin. The margin is overlain by a blanket of post-rift sedimentary rocks that are up to 6 km thick beneath the lower continental slope. The COB in this sector is interpreted from the seismic reflection data and potential field modelling to coincide with the base of a basement depression at 8.0–8.5 s two-way time, approximately 170 km oceanwards of the shelf-edge bounding fault system. Oceanic crust in this sector is highly variable in character, from rugged with a relief of more than 1 km over distances of 10–20 km, to rugose with low-amplitude relief set on a long-wavelength undulating basement. The crustal velocity profile appears unusual, with velocities of 7.6–7.95 km s⁻¹ being recorded at several stations at a depth that gives a thickness of crust of only 4 km. If these velocities are from mantle, then the thin crust may be due to the presence of fracture zones. Alternatively, the velocities may be coming from a lower crust that has been heavily altered by the intrusion of mantle rocks. The sector east of 58° E has formed in a normal rifted margin setting, with complexities in the east from the underlying structure of the N–S trending Palaeozoic Lambert Graben. The Napier Complex is downfaulted to depths of 8–10 km beneath the upper continental slope, and the margin rift basin is more than 300 km wide. As in the western sector, the rift-stage rocks are probably relatively thin. This part of the margin is blanketed by post-rift sediments that are up to about 8 km thick. The interpreted COB in the eastern sector is the most prominent boundary in deep water, and typically coincides with a prominent oceanwards step-up in the basement level of up to 1 km. As in the west, the interpretation of this boundary is supported by potential field modelling. The oceanic crust adjacent to the COB in this sector has a highly distinctive character, commonly with (1) a smooth upper surface underlain by short, seaward-dipping flows; (2) a transparent upper crustal layer; (3) a lower crust dominated by dipping high-amplitude reflections that probably reflect intruded or altered shears; (4) a strong reflection Moho, confirmed by seismic refraction modelling; and (5) prominent landward-dipping upper mantle reflections on several adjacent lines. A similar style of oceanic crust is also found in contemporaneous ocean basins that developed between Greater India and Australia–Antarctica west of Bruce Rise on the Antarctic margin, and along the Cuvier margin of northwest Australia.     

A free air gravity anomaly contour map of the Irish continental margin

Compilation of currently-available gravity data permits the construction of a free-air anomaly contour map of the continental margin west of Ireland (51–54 N). Major elements in the structure of the margin, previously delineated on the basis of seismic reflection and magnetic surveys, are clearly seen on the FAA contour map, notably the Porcupine Seabight Trough, and Porcupine Ridge. However, contrary to earlier ideas, the gravity data imply that the Seabight Trough extends northwards onto the Slyne Ridge; and the Slyne Trough, formerly regarded as northeasterly prolongation of the Seabight Trough, appears to be a discrete, fault-bounded, feature separated from the latter by a basement ridge. East-west gravity profiles are modelled in terms of thinned crust with the Moho at a minimum depth of 15 km beneath the axis of the Seabight Trough. The models tend to support hypotheses invoking formation of the Seabight Trough by simple westward translation of Porcupine Ridge with respect to the Irish Mainland.     

Influence of Sedimentation on the Geomorphology of the Northwestern Continental Margin of India

Based upon the analysis of about 10,000 line km of echosounding and bathymetric data and variations in mass accumulation rate along the NW continental margin of India (between Kori creek and Mumbai), we have deduced that in the northern region (in the vicinity of the River Indus) the shelf-break occurs at a shallower depth and the slope is shallower, has the steepest gradient (<1:20), is smoother with no major features, and has reduced width (slope edge at 1450 m; width 19 km than off Mumbai). The width and depth of the slope edge gradually increases southwards, and is at maximum off DamanMumbai (slope edge depth 2900 m; width 84 km). The intensity of the occurrence of physiographic features also increases southwards. The shelf edge off Saurashtra is undulating and on the slope, regional notches and benches (the most prominent at 560 m) are observed. Further southwards off Khambhat-Mumbai, the slope is characterized by the presence of bathymetric highs and lows. We have also observed numerous features on the shelf, with a variable depth of the shelf-break. The gradient of the continental slope is also reduced from the northern region to the southern region. The variations in the gradient of the slope and the presence of distinct physiographic features in this area are examined vis-a-vis fluvial supply of the sediments into the region.