清洁发展机制(CDM)实践及理论研究进展

清洁发展机制(CDM)是《京都议定书》(KP)中规定的发达国家与发展中国家之间的温室气体减排合作方式。随着2005年2月26日KP的生效,CDM实施活动在全球范围内开始全面展开。中国被公认为是温室气体减排潜力最大的国家,具有广阔的开展CDM合作的前景。为了能配合国内CDM的实践活动,本文在大量文献及重要文件研究基础上,总结了CDM诞生10年来的实践及理论发展情况,并分析了CDM今后的发展趋势。     

《SCM协定》视野下的清洁发展机制

清洁发展机制(CDM)为<京都议定书>确立的一种基于项目的环境保护机制,它允许相关成员国在其他国家投资项目以兑现其排放削减承诺.在下,从这种为保护环境跨国投资、鼓励资金跨国的转移角度看,清洁发展机制具有合法性;而在附条件的资金转移情况下,清洁发展机制的合法性可能要受到怀疑.     

清洁发展机制对我国节能减排的作用

清洁发展机制（CDM）是《京都议定书》发达国家和发展中国家就减排温室气体进行交易的合作机制。我国“十一五”规划《纲要》提出了节能减排的目标,而我国还是一个发展中国家,要实现节能减排面临很多的困难。CDM项目大部分是与提高能效和开发利用新能源直接有关,因此,CDM能为此提供一定的推动力,能够促进我国的节能减排。文章分析了当前我国节能减排面临的困难,探讨了CDM在我国节能减排所起的作用,提出我国对积极开发CDM项目应采取的相应对策。     

清洁发展机制在全球范围及我国的进展概述

清洁发展机制（Clean Development Mechanism,CDM）是《京都议定书》框架下三种灵活减排机制中惟一连接发达国家和发展中国家的温室气体减排机制,自2004年11月18日全球第一个CDM项目注册成功至今短短4年时间内,CDM已得到广泛认可并在国内外范围内的项目市场迅速发展。     

清洁发展机制的进展及应对策略

介绍了清洁发展机制的产生、发展及开发流程，通过对CDM国内外发展现状的分析，明确了我国作为最具潜力的市场，应利用自身融资和技术特点，加大CDM项目开发力度，并结合实际提出CDM实施的意义和应努力的方向。     

河南省清洁发展机制开发潜力研究

河南省既是农业强省、又是工业能耗大省,节能减排潜力较大,但是与国内其他省份相比,CDM开发相对不足.为准确确定河南CDM开发潜力、最大程度促进河南CDM项目开发,本文从不同行业领域对河南省内不同CDM开发领域的潜力进行了定性和定量分析,确定了河南省未来一段时间的CDM开发重点.在对河南省进行分析的基础上,进一步提出了省级CDM开发的对策建议.     

清洁发展机制给中国带来的发展与挑战

本期讨论的话题： 清洁发展机制（CDM）是《京都议定书》中引入的三个灵活履约机制之一。根据“共同但有区别的责任”原则,已完成工业革命的发达国家应对全球变暖承担更多的历史责任。因此,《京都议定书》只给工业化国家制定了减排任务,但没有对发展中国家做这个要求。     

世界银行新增两个中国CDM项目

今天，世界银行代表原型碳基金（PCF）和社区发展碳基金（CDCF），与两个中国企业就一个风电项目和一个水电项目签署根据《京都议定书》清洁发展机制购买温室气体减排额度的协定。签字仪式在北京召开的亚洲碳博览会上举行。亚洲碳博览会是在亚洲地区举行的第一届碳博览会，有来自政府、企业界和社会各界的800多位代表出席。     

晋开化工清洁发展机制的探索与实践

全球气候变化以及温室气体减排,既属于环境问题,同时又是一个重大的经济问题。清洁发展机制是《京都议定书》中规定的发达国家与发展中国家之间的温室气体减排合作方式,其核心是允许发达国家通过与发展中国家进行项目级的合作,获得由项目产生的核证的温室气体减排量。晋开化工通过引进日本三菱公司先进的环境技术和节能技术,对硝酸装置进行N2O的减排治理,实现了清洁发展机制,不仅达到减少温室气体的排放、降低硝酸生产成本,为企业创造可观的经济效益,也为世界环境保护做出了贡献。     

《京都议定书》遭遇美国"变脸"

全球气候变暖是一个老问题,然而最近,由于美国布什政府在《京都议定书》上开倒车,这一问题再次引起人们的关注。     

Prospects for mitigating carbon,conserving biodiversity,and promoting socioeconomic development objectives through the clean development mechanism

Should forest-based climate mitigationmeasures be approved for crediting through the CleanDevelopment Mechanism (CDM), they could offer anopportunity to accomplish three important objectives:cost-effective reductions in carbon emissions andsequestration of atmospheric carbon; conservation andrestoration of forests and their biological diversity;and, the assistance of host countries and communitiesin their socioeconomic development. However,prospective investors in CDM projects, host countriesand other CDM `stakeholders' might be expected toplace widely different priorities on achieving theseobjectives. This paper describes several factors thatwill affect investor interest in CDM projects, thecharacteristics of forest-based CDM projects that willattract investments, and an approach to identifyingprojects that meet the key objectives of multiplestakeholders. This approach entails identifyingsites, such as degraded watersheds, where CDMfinancing for forest conservation and restoration cangenerate readily monetizable local and regionalsocioeconomic benefits, while mitigating carbonemissions in forests with importance for conservingbiodiversity.     

Options for baselines of the clean development mechanism

The Kyoto Protocol created the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to allow industrial countries to reach part of their greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction through projects in developing countries. To calculate the achieved emission reduction a reference scenario has to be developed – the baseline. Despite efforts to develop realistic baselines, a certain degree of uncertainty regarding actual reductions will be inevitable. It is therefore necessary to compare the costs (including transaction costs) of developing a baseline against the informational benefit it can be expected to produce. While project-related baselines are already being applied, the proponents of country-related baselines have still to show the applicability of their approach for the CDM. The possibility of quantifying indirect effects and considering market distortions and subsidies through aggregation in the country-related baselines is weighed up by the manipulability and uncertainty of the assumptions required in such a baseline. Thus project-specific baselines are recommended. In cases of severely distorted markets undergoing liberalization or subsidy phase-out, a country-related baseline can be helpful. Sectoral or programme baselines would be suited to large-scale energy and sequestration projects. Moreover it has to be considered whether emission reductions are generally achieved in the context of relocation or done in the context of global emitting capacity expansion.     

A basic study with feasibility of applying clean development mechanism to the transport projects

In the transport sector, few projects applied Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) or Joint Implementation (JI) projects. This study will examine the feasibility of applying CDM to the transport sector from viewpoints of validation of processes and funding. A number of greenhouse gas emission reduction projects, as well as traffic management project within existing transport infrastructures, can be implemented as CDM projects. New transport infrastructure projects can be validated by transportdemand forecasting and traffic simulation methods, though application of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) technologies. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Baseline options and greenhouse gas emission reduction of clean development mechanism project in urban solid waste management

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) was adopted in the Kyoto Protocol as a flexibility mechanism to reduce greenhouse gases (GHGs) and has been started with such projects as improving efficiency of individual technology. Although applying various countermeasures to urban areas has significant potentials for reducing GHGs, these countermeasures have not been proposed as CDM projects in the practical stage. A CDM project needs to be validated that it will reduce GHGs additionally compared with a baseline, that is, a predictive value of GHG emissions in the absence of the project. This study examined the introduction of solid waste incineration with electricity generation into three different cities, A, B and C. The combination of main solid waste treatment and fuel source are landfill and coal, respectively, in City A, incineration and natural gas in City B, and landfill and hydro in City C. GHG emission reductions of each city under several baseline options assumed here were evaluated. Even if the same technology is introduced, the emission reduction greatly varies according to the current condition and the future plan of the city: 1043–1406 kg CO₂/t of waste in City A, 198–580 kg CO₂/t in City B, and wide range of zero to over 1000 kg CO₂/tin City C. Baseline options also cause significant difference in the emission reduction even in the same city (City C). Incinerating solid waste after removing plastics by source separation in City B increased GHG emission reduction potential up to 730–900 kg CO₂/t, which enhances the effectiveness as a CDM project. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Forest conservation and the clean development mechanism: Lessons from the Costa Rican protected areas project

Deforestation is currentlythe source of about 20% of anthropogenicCO₂ emissions. Avoided deforestationhas, nonetheless, been ruled out as a CleanDevelopment Mechanism (CDM) category in theKyoto Protocol's first commitment period,because several methodological issues wereconsidered too difficult to resolve. Thispaper explores whether CDM issues such as(1) carbon quantification, (2)additionality and baseline setting, (3)leakage risks, (4) non-permanence risks,and (5) sustainable development can beadequately dealt with in large, diversifiedforest conservation projects. To this aim,it studies the case of the Costa RicanProtected Areas Project (PAP), anActivities Implemented Jointly (AIJ)project which was meant to consolidate thenational park system to avoiddeforestation, promote the growth ofsecondary forests and regenerate pastureson an area that, in total, covers 10% ofthe national territory. The case studyexamines how the issues mentioned abovehave been addressed in the project designand in the certification process. It isfound that baseline uncertainties are themajor problem in this case. Nonetheless,the case suggests the possibility toaddress CDM issues by specific requirementsfor project design and very conservativeand temporary crediting. Provided thatother case studies support this conclusion,eligibility of well-designed forestconservation projects under the CDM in thesecond commitment period may be worthconsidering, given the secondary benefitsof avoided deforestation.     

Land Use,Land-Use Change,Forestry, and Agricultural Activities in the Clean Development Mechanism: Estimates of Greenhouse Gas Offset Potential

Activities involving land use, land-use change,forestry, and agriculture (LUCF) can help reducegreenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphereby increasing biotic carbon storage, by decreasing GHGemissions, and by producing biomass as a substitutefor fossil fuels. Potential activities includereducing rates of deforestation, increasing landdevoted to forest plantations, regenerating secondaryforest, agroforestry, improving the management offorests and agricultural areas; and producing energycrops.Policymakers debating the inclusion of a variety ofLUCF activities in the Clean Development Mechanism(CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol need to consider themagnitude of the carbon contribution these activitiescould make. Existing estimates of the cumulative GHGoffset potential of LUCF activities often take aglobal or regional approach. In contrast, land-usedecisions are usually made at the local level anddepend on many factors including productive capacityof the land, financial considerations of thelandowner, and environmental concerns. Estimates ofGHG offset potential made at a local, or at mostcountry, level that incorporate these factors may belower, as well as more useful for policy analyses,than global or large regional estimates. Whilecountry-level estimates exist for forestry activities,similar estimates utilizing local information need tobe generated for agricultural activities and biofuels,as well as for the cumulative potential of all LUCFactivities in a particular location.     

Reside0ntial solar water heating as a potential Clean Development Mechanism project: A South African case study

A community-based Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project – asolar water heating project in a low-income community in South Africa –is analysed to illustrate the methodological and policy challenges that faceimplementation of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change. We evaluate four baseline options, andthree potential CDM interventions. The emissions reductions range from –670 to +5 929 Mg CO₂ per year, with all option but oneshowing positive emission reductions. Using metered solar water heatingwith liquefied petroleum gas back-up as the CDM intervention, and electricstorage geysers as the baseline, the annual emissions reductions are 5686 Mg CO₂. The cost-effectiveness from the national perspective,which is the incremental life cycle costs divided by the lifetime emissionsreductions, is –$18 per Mg CO₂ From the perspective of theCDM investor, however, the cost-effectiveness is $5.2 per mgCO₂, assuming that the investor receives all of the carbon credits forproviding the incremental capital investment. From our analysis, weconclude that using the current technology (kerosene stoves) as a baselineis probably not appropriate because it does not reflect likely future trendsand also penalises the community for their poverty and current lack ofinfrastructure. We also highlight the importance of credit sharing, and howit affects the cost-effectiveness of the project from the CDM investor'sperspective. The lessons from this analysis are important for the currentinternational policy debate on how to preferentially treat small-scale CDMprojects.     

企业参与对CDM环境效力影响研究

扩大企业对CDM的参与是提高清洁发展机制减排效果的关键因素，但是随着参与的不断扩大，可能产生价格因素、小项目开发障碍、“普遍性”等阻碍因素，将影响企业对CDM参与性的继续扩大，对减排效果的提高造成负面影响。在对企业参与和CDM环境效力相互关系探讨的基础上，本文对如何继续扩大参与、加大减排提出了发展建议。