Mitigation and adaptation investments for desertification and climate change: an assessment of the socioeconomic return

Climate change will further increase the risk of desertification, which is already affecting large areas of the world. Many countries are making investments for the implementation of mitigation and adaptation strategies to combat desertification. The long term effectiveness of these strategies necessarily require a socioeconomic return for its sustainability. The main goal of our paper is to assess the relation between the mitigation and adaptation investments and the socio-economy of the rural population. The area of study is located in north-central Chile. The northern regions are mostly composed by arid land, which can be considered as a marginal area for agriculture. The area formed by the southern regions is optimal for the agricultural activity which is characterized by an industrialized agriculture with and increased use of technology. The indicators we have used for our study are the following: the Investments provided by the Chilean Agriculture Livestock and Forestry (ALF) promotion agencies, the ALF Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the Population Employed in ALF. The results show that the relationship between the investments and the socioeconomy varies among the regions analyzed. Investments are positively correlated (P?≤?0.05) with the ALF GDP and the labor in ALF in the northern regions, but do not seem to be directly related to labor in ALF in the southern regions (P?≥?0.05). Therefore, our conclusion is that the Investments are significantly relevant for the agricultural activity in the arid northern regions, while in the southern regions they have no direct impact on the labor in ALF.     

Effectiveness of the strategies to combat land degradation and drought

This paper focuses on the determination of the most effective set of mitigation and adaptation strategies applied to combat land degradation and drought in a latitudinal gradient. This study was carried out in Chile, in a latitude gradient between 17° 30′S and 36° 33′S. The northern regions are mostly formed by desert and dry land, which can be considered as marginal areas for agriculture. On the other hand, the area formed by the southern regions has an industrialized agriculture where an increased use of technology takes place and where the climate and water availability are optimal for the development of agriculture. The period considered in this study was between 2000 and 2007. We calculated an Investment Effectiveness Index. Afterwards, and in order to assess the effectiveness of the financial support, we performed multiple regressions (P?≤?0.05), where the Index was considered as the independent variable, and the annual difference of the area affected by a high risk of desertification was considered as the dependent variable. Our findings suggest that the effectiveness of the different set of the strategies applied to fight against desertification and drought varies in a latitudinal gradient. Thus, in arid and hyper arid areas the promotion of modern irrigation systems seems to be effective in combating desertification, while in Mediterranean climates the reforestation strategies seem to play an important role. Our results suggest that in areas heavily degraded by overgrazing, the most effective strategies are those oriented to obtain a permanent vegetation cover on degraded soils.     

西藏土地资源特点及其合理开发

西藏土地辽阔，但其宜农土地少而分布集中；宜牧土地数量大，但质量差异大；宜林土地质高量大；高寒干旱及难利用土地较广。这些特点决定了西藏农林牧生产的结构、规模和布局。目前土地开发水平低、商品性生产落后，部分土地有所退化，经济与生态效益均不高。因此，今后应加强科学管理、增加投入，深度开发与保护农林牧各类土地资源。提高现有耕地的单产水平；改良草地与建设人工草地，采育结合；保护森林等乃是促进西藏农业经济发展、改善农业生产条件与生态环境的战略方针和有效对策。     

东北平原西部沙地的气候变异与土地荒漠化

东北平原西部沙地位于欧亚大陆中纬度巨型沙带的东部边缘 ,为我国荒漠化土地的东缘。随着经济的发展 ,生态环境遭到严重破坏 ,荒漠化景观日益明显 ,前景令人堪忧。气候因素是荒漠化发展的一个基本因素 ,东北平原西部沙地是我国北方气候条件最好的沙区 ,但目前对于区域荒漠化驱动因子的气候因素影响方面的研究未开展系统的工作。论文系统分析了东北平原西部沙地影响荒漠化的现代气候因素特点 ,探讨了在较好气候条件下气候变异、人类活动与荒漠化之间的关系 ,并根据气候发展趋势预测了未来在自然因素作用下沙地的可能发展趋势。     

西藏自治区的土地、粮食和人口

本文讨论了西藏自治区土地系统、农业发展、人口增长和它们之间的相互关系。指出西藏土地类型复杂多样,极少土地能用于种植业,单位产量亦不高。人均占有粮食不足300kg,若干牧区不足50kg。粮食生产不能满足人口增长的需求。这种趋势在今后30年内仍将继续下去。 为了解决土地—粮食—人口三者之间关系的不协调,需采取若干切实措施。文中亦强调人口控制的必要。     

锡林郭勒草原荒漠化气候因素分析

利用1961-2006年锡林郭勒草原年、季、月降水量、平均气温、沙尘暴日数等气象资料,针对锡林郭勒草原荒漠化的现状进行分析。在气候变暖背景下,研究锡林郭勒草原干旱发生的规律及其成因,分析其带给锡林郭勒草原荒漠化的影响,得到以下结论：1．锡林郭勒草原沙化、荒漠化严重,沙化面积位居内蒙古自治区第一,荒漠化面积位居内蒙古自治区第二。2．锡林郭勒草原春夏季降水趋势存在准25a气候振动,年代际变化特征比较突出。干旱发生的频率较高。3．气候变暖给锡林郭勒草原干旱带来较大的影响。4．沙尘暴频发与干旱相互影响,同时对锡林郭勒草原草场生态资源产生一定的影响。5．生态环境恶化,导致大面积土地资源和生物资源丧失。恶化的生态环境已经影响到了锡林郭勒草原社会经济的发展。     

利用整群抽样进行地类监测

引言 根据山西省农业区划委员会关于建立农业资源动态监测体系的研究课题,我们从1981年开始经过三年时间对晋南的永济、运城、临猗、闻喜、夏县等五个县(市)的试点研究,基本建成了以进行土地类型面积和农作物产量调查为主要内容的动态监测体系。这是数理统计中抽样推断理论在农业上的应用,它还可以对大范围多内容的农业资源的变化进行动态监测。因此,“农业资源动态监测”被正式列入国家的“七五”计划。而这个体     

Numerical model to assess the impact of the strategies to mitigate desertification

Desertification is considered a global environmental problem with political and socioeconomic implications. Desertification, exacerbated by climate change, is the largest environmental problem in Chile affecting almost two third of the national territory. This study takes place in a latitudinal gradient of the north-central Chilean drylands, where desertification is a threat to agriculture, livestock and forestry (ALF). In the context of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and the implementation of the Chilean National Action Programme (NAP), the country is conducting policies and investing in mitigation strategies to combat land degradation and desertification. The main objective of this paper is the development of an integrative methodological approach using real data of the territorial and socioeconomic indicators. With the proposed methodology we assess the impact of the mitigation and land degradation strategies supported by the ALF promotion agencies in the fight against desertification, projecting different scenarios of change. The data were collected in 2008 in Santiago, Chile. The results of the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) suggest that technical irrigation and the improvement of grasslands and pastures play an important role in the fight against desertification. The results of the model projections are consistent, suggesting that the efforts of the ALF promotion agencies have a positive impact in fighting desertification. Inaction of ALF mitigation strategies would increase desertification. This methodological approach, performed with real data, is a contribution for the development of integrative assessments, for replication and for forthcoming discussions.     

Economic Assessment of Mitigation Options for Enhancing and Maintaining Carbon Sink Capacity in Indonesia

Land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) projects may becomeeligible under Article 12 of the United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC) Kyoto Protocol's Clean DevelopmentMechanism (CDM). Some of the issues, which need to be addressed,include identifying the types of greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation activitiesin LULUCF, which could be undertaken as CDM projects. Other issuesinvolve evaluating the mitigation potential and cost effectiveness of theactivities, as well as their likely socio-economic impacts and their influenceon the national carbon (C) stock. Three broad categories of mitigationactivities in LULUCF analyzed in this study include managing Cstorage, C conservation and carbon substitution. The C intensityof the activities was estimated to range from 37 to 218 Mg C per ha. The highest is in reforested land with slow growing species and the lowestin short-rotation plantations. At a real discount rate of 10%, investmentcosts required to implement the mitigation activities ranged from US$0.07 to 0.88 per Mg C, with life cycle costs ranging from US$ 0.07to 3.87 per Mg C, and benefits ranging from US$ –0.81 to 6.57 perMg C. Mitigation options with negative benefits are forest protection,reforestation, reduced impact logging and enhanced natural regeneration,while those with positive benefits are short rotation timber plantation, andbio-energy. Reforestation gave negative benefit since no revenue fromwood as trees are left in the forest for conservation, while Reduced ImpactLogging (RIL) and Enhanced Natural Regeneration (ENR)gave negative benefits because additional cost required to implement theoptions could not be compensated by the increase in round-hardwoodyield. Other factor is that the local price of round-hardwood is very low,i.e. US$ 160 per m³, while FOB price is between 250–400 US$ per m³. Total area available for implementing mitigationoptions (planting trees) in 1997 was 31 million hectares (× 10⁶ha) (about 40% are critical lands, 35% grasslands and 25%unproductive lands).Total area being considered for implementing the options under baseline,government-plans and mitigation scenarios in the period 2000–2030 is12.6, 16.3 and 23.6 × 10⁶ ha respectively. Furthermore, total area of production forest being considered for implementing reduced impactlogging and enrichment planting under the tree scenarios is 9, 26 and 16 × 10⁶ ha respectively, and that for forest protection is 2.1, 3.7, 3.1× 10⁶ ha respectively. The cumulative investment for implementingall mitigation activities in the three scenarios was estimated at 595, 892and 1026 million US$ respectively. National C stock under thebaseline scenario will continuously decline through 2030, while undergovernment-plans and mitigation scenarios the carbon stock increases. In2030, national C stock of the government and mitigation scenarios isalmost the same, 13% higher than that of baseline. However, the increasein national carbon stock in both scenarios could not offset carbon emissionsdue to deforestation.     

土地荒漠化的成因、危害及防治对策

土地荒漠化是指在干旱、半干旱和某些半湿润、湿润地区,由于气候变化和人类活动等各种因素所造成的土地退化,它使土地生物和经济生产潜力减少,甚至基本丧失.我国是全球荒漠化面积较大、分布较广、危害较严重的国家之一.近年来由于采取了一系列有效的治理措施,荒漠化和沙化整体扩展的趋势已得到初步遏制,但形势依然严峻.     

气象干旱对甘肃省榆中县乡村社会—生态系统的影响

干旱影响研究是干旱及半干旱地区人地关系研究的重要内容,社会—生态系统的视角为西北地区生态脆弱—贫困区的可持续性研究提供了新的思路。选取甘肃省榆中县为研究区,运用标准化降水指数、干旱经济损失估算模型和GIS分析工具,分析干旱对粮食产量、经济发展和农户家庭的影响,归纳干旱对乡村社会—生态系统的影响机制。研究结果表明：（1）1960-2015年,榆中县气象干旱程度较强,且与粮食产量呈显著正相关,尤其对榆中县南、北部山区的粮食产量影响显著;（2）气象干旱造成的经济损失具有频率高和空间分布广的特征,经济损失严重区集中在榆中县南、北部山区;（3）农户家庭受灾面积较大,农作物减产和家庭收入损失明显,气象干旱造成的粮食安全问题严重,且“纯农型”家庭收入损失和粮食安全问题尤为突出;（4）水资源利用环、产量环、收入环—生计环和经济环为干旱影响社会—生态系统运行机制的关键环节。     

全球变化对我国荒漠化的影响

本文根据当前国内外科学家们对全球变化的研究及＂联合国环境与发展大会＂的决议第１２款,＂荒漠化＂的定义,探讨全球变化对我国土地荒漠化的影响。文中利用我国７００多个气象站点３０年的平均气象资料,采用联合国环境规划署环境监测系统／全球资料数据库方案活动中心以及国际上广泛应用的Ｔｈｏｒｎｔｈｗａｉｔｅ计算ＰＥ与气候分类方法,计算和绘制了当ＣＯ_２倍增、气温升高１．５－４．５℃时我国干旱区、半干旱区及半湿润干旱区（Ａｒｉｄ,ｓｅｍｉ－ａｒｉｄａｎｄｄｒｙｓｕｂ－ｈｕｍｉｄａｒｅａｓ）分布变化的图表,同时利用我国北方１６０个气象台站近４０年连续记录的气象资料,进行滑动平均,计算和绘制了干旱、半干旱区的最近４０年来气温变暖及干湿变化的趋势图,分析了在全球变化下如果工业发展和其结构不变的情况下,未来３０－５０年我国土地荒漠化的发展趋势,为我国荒漠化监测预报和防治提供依据和对策。     

Water security as a challenge for the sustainability of La Serena-Coquimbo conurbation in northern Chile: global perspectives and adaptation

The aim of this study is to address the problem of balance between water scarcity and sustainability, which are the key components of water security of cities located in arid lands, particularly those under constant expansion and population growth. In this paper, we have highlighted the problem of water security for the sustainability of the La Serena-Coquimbo conurbation (LSCC). The coastal LSCC is located at the outlet of the Elqui River basin, in the southern edge of the Chilean Atacama Desert. We have analyzed the available information including drinking water production and consumption data, groundwater levels, precipitation data and population data. Between the years 2009 and 2013 the total water consumption for the area has significantly increased. On the other hand, there has been a significant decrease trend in the precipitations and the groundwater levels show a decrease of about 30 m between the years 1995 and 2014. In a few years, this urban area could face a general water scarcity problem if the drought conditions remain unchanged and if the water demand trend for the agricultural, mining and drinking water continues its increasing. The cities located in the arid lands are particularly vulnerable to water scarcity because their populations are highly concentrated and requires reliable supplies of water to make possible human and economic activities. We discuss how adaptation of the arid land urban areas to water scarcity requires a range of solutions, including economic incentives, regulatory measures, and technology.     

绿洲浅层地下水位与水质变化对人为驱动LUCC的响应——以三工河流域为例

以新疆三工河流域绿洲为例,应用遥感、地理信息系统、空间插值和统计分析的方法,初步分析干旱区绿洲土地利用/土地覆被变化对绿洲浅层地下水位水质变化的影响。研究数据包括1978、1987和1998年三期遥感数据和近25年8口常年观测井水位数据及1987和1998年两期20口观测井水质数据。结果表明,绿洲随着城市、工矿用地为主的非农业用地和以耕地为主的农业用地的持续增加,浅层地下水水位与水质发生了显著性的时空变化。冲洪积扇绿洲主要城镇聚居区地下水位以年均45cm的速率下降,冲积平原下部绿洲地下水位以年均7cm的速率呈现缓慢的上升趋势;绿洲地下水水质趋于恶化,矿化度总体呈现上升的态势,且冲积平原绿洲地下水矿化度上升的幅度普遍大于冲洪积扇绿洲,这与地形、水文地质条件、土地资源开发、灌排强度、地表蒸发、化学肥料和农药的使用密切相关。     

基于卫星遥感数据的河口区生态环境状况评价

利用黄河三角洲地区中巴资源卫星多光谱影像数据,通过遥感技术方法提取反映生态环境状况的土地退化指数、植被指数、水体密度指数及人类活动指数,对垦利县生态环境进行了定量评价.结果表明,垦利县生态环境状况整体偏差,优、良等级的土地面积仅占全县的24.64%,主要为分布在东北部林地及西南部和中部的部分农用地;中等地面积占44.08%,分布在东部沿海滩涂,西部、中部、东北部的农用地有少量分布;差、劣等级的土地面积占总面积的30.12%,主要为分布在中部和北部的盐荒地.     

沙区沙化土地封禁保护补偿标准的估算——最小数据方法在甘肃省民勤县的运用

论文以甘肃省民勤县沙化土地封禁保护实践工作为研究背景,运用最小数据方法,估算了激励沙区农户将沙化耕地自愿转化为封禁土地的生态补偿（封禁补偿）标准。以水资源服务表征土地管理方式转变之后的生态系统服务产出,由调查获得的农户机会成本推导出了水资源服务供给曲线,并计算出了封禁补偿标准与土地转化比例、水资源服务供给量之间的定量关系。研究结果表明：1）实施封禁补偿,可激励农户改变沙化耕地利用方式,减少农业用水需求量,增加生态用水供给量,对民勤和石羊河流域生态保护意义重大;2）民勤县规划封禁保护区总面积为1.55万hm²,期望水资源服务产出为1.02亿m³,需要按照19 770元·hm^-2的标准补偿才能激励农户实现这一政策目标;3）以新一轮退耕还林补偿标准3 600元·hm^-2为参照线,只能促使3.51%的沙化耕地转化为封禁土地,在设计封禁补偿机制时,需要提高封禁补偿标准。     

基于熵信息扩散理论的中国农业水旱灾害风险评估

农业水旱灾害是制约中国农业生产的重要因素。针对信息扩散理论模型存在的不足,论文构建了评估中国农业水旱灾害风险的熵信息扩散理论模型,依据1985-2013年数据资料,运用熵信息扩散理论模型对中国大陆30个省、市、自治区（重庆包含在四川中计算）的农业水旱灾害进行了风险评估,根据农业水旱灾害风险评估结果对中国农业水旱灾害风险进行了综合对比分析。评估和分析结果表明：中国面临着较大的农业水旱灾害风险压力;中国农业旱灾风险明显大于农业水灾风险;农业水旱灾害空间风险特征明显;农业水灾高中风险区域主要集中在长江中下游地区和东北地区,农业旱灾高风险区域主要集中在中国北部地区和东北地区,总体上看,中国农业水旱灾害的空间分布格局是南方地区易出现水灾,而北部地区易出现旱灾,东北地区面临水旱灾害重叠的双重压力。     

不同模式下农地整治前后土地利用效率的比较研究

论文在农户问卷调查数据的基础上,运用超效率DEA模型测算不同模式的农地整治项目区整治前后的土地利用效率以及同期未整治区土地利用效率,并采用双重差分计量模型研究了传统政府主导模式下农地整治项目区与未整治区土地利用效率的差异、农户主导模式与传统政府主导模式下农地整治项目区土地利用效率差异。研究结果表明:农地整治后,农户主导模式的农地整治项目区户均土地利用效率提高0.121 2,传统政府主导模式的农地整治项目区户均土地利用效率提高0.080 6,而同期未整治区户均土地利用效率提高0.040 1,反映出传统政府主导模式的农地整治可促进土地利用效率的提高,而农户主导模式的农地整治项目对土地利用效率的提升作用更大;农地整治对土地利用效率、农业总产值、灌溉资本投入影响显著,农户有效参与对土地利用效率、农业总产值影响显著;户主受教育程度、农业收入比例、旱涝保收耕地比例及承包地面积等对土地利用效率影响显著。据此,论文提出了相应的政策建议,为政府开展农地整治项目实施模式的创新提供决策参考。     

中国粮食作物种植结构调整及其水土资源利用效应

粮食种植结构调整会影响农业资源的消耗需求。20世纪90年代中后期以来,玉米在我国粮食生产中的地位明显提升。以粮食种植结构无调整为参照情景,一定产量下,1996-2015年,在国家层面,因粮食种植结构调整对水土资源消耗的节省量约占现期需求量的4%左右。在区域层面,从结构调整对种植面积的减省效应看,耕地资源相对丰富的北方地区明显高于南方地区;从对水资源消耗的减省效应看,北方贫水区也普遍高于南方地区,干旱度最高的西北地区最高。期间区域分品种粮食生产广泛受到作物种植比例变化的影响。研究结果表明,要充分利用好南方水热资源,恢复水稻生产,主要取决于稻米需求及其种植效益,而北方地区则要尽可能按降水规律调整农作制度,合理控制水稻、小麦的种植面积。     

基于径向基函数神经网络（RBFN）的内蒙古土壤风蚀危险度评价

土壤风蚀是北方干旱和半干旱地区土地沙化和沙尘暴灾害的首要环节和主要动力过程之一. 选取影响内蒙古自治区土壤风蚀演化的相关指标,运用GIS技术提取各指标数据,构建径向基函数神经网络（Radial Basis Function Network,RBFN）;根据不同风蚀危险程度标准,选取12个市、县（旗）相关数据进行训练,确定网络模型参数,进而对内蒙古自治区88个市、县（旗）的土壤风蚀危险度进行了评价. 结果表明:内蒙古自治区西部为土壤风蚀发生的极强危险区,西北为强危险区,中部为中度危险区,而东部为轻度危险区;利用其他研究对该评价结论进行对比验证,结果较为理想.