Illusory correlation and subjective judgment.

Conducted a study with 120 male college students to extend L. Chapman and J. Chapman's (see record 1969-13004-001) finding that judges report popular invalid signs (illusory correlates) on the Rorschach as being valid indicators of homosexuality. As predicted, when Ss were tested both before and after 2 different kinds of training, in which various relationships between cues (Rorschach responses) and symptoms were presented, extremely strong a priori expectations were found for the illusory relationship between anal responses on the Rorschach and the symptom of homosexuality. In cue-symptom conditions where both the illusory and nonillusory cues were paired randomly with the symptom of homosexuality, a substantial decrease in illusory correlation occurred as a result of training. Little change occurred either when both the illusory and nonillusory cues were paired validly with homosexuality, or when illusory cues had a random relationship but nonillusory cues had a valid relationship. Different modes of feedback and different symptom base rates did not produce differential effects in posttraining estimates of the illusory relationship. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Rorschach and TAT indices of homosexuality in overt homosexuals, neurotics, and normal males": Erratum.

Reports an error in the original article by Anthony Davids, Mark Joelson, and Charles McArthur (Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 1956[Sept], 53, 161-172). In the section on TAT results, under the heading of Signs suggested for further confirmation (p. 168), it states incorrectly (line 15) that the sign of a strong unresolved attachment to a father or father figure was scored in stories composed for Card 8. The sign was in fact scored in stories composed for TAT Card 7. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1958-02891-001). Rorschach and TAT protocols of 20 male overt homosexuals, 20 male neurotics, and 20 normal male students were compared in order to determine whether proposed homosexual signs were discriminative. The homosexual group gave a significantly greater mean number of the Rorschach and TAT signs than did either nonhomosexual group. "Within the homosexual group, correlation between the number of Rorschach signs and number of TAT signs produced by each S proved significant, serving as a check on the validity of both schemes and indicating the consistency of these 2 diverse measures of homosexuality." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rorschach and TAT indices of homosexuality in overt homosexuals, neurotics, and normal males.

Rorschach and TAT protocols of 20 male overt homosexuals, 20 male neurotics, and 20 normal male students were compared in order to determine whether proposed homosexual signs were discriminative. The homosexual group gave a significantly greater mean number of the Rorschach and TAT signs than did either nonhomosexual group. "Within the homosexual group, correlation between the number of Rorschach signs and number of TAT signs produced by each S proved significant, serving as a check on the validity of both schemes and indicating the consistency of these 2 diverse measures of homosexuality." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Illusory correlation: A further exploration of Chapman's paradigm.

Even though the phenomenon of illusory correlation first researched by L. Chapman (see record 1967-08174-001) has been demonstrated in a variety of studies, little has been done to show that this bias cannot be reduced or eliminated by training. The present study addresses this issue with 4 groups of 15 undergraduates each. The 1st group replicated a study by L. Chapman and J. Chapman (see record 1969-13004-001) with an equal association of all valid Wheeler signs and invalid signs and statements of the patients' purported problem. Group 2 had valid signs presented 100% of the time and invalid signs presented 50% of the time. Group 3 Ss had special pretraining against illusory correlation, with 50% presentation of valid signs, and Group 4 also had the special pretraining, with 100% presentationof the valid Wheeler signs. It was predicted that Groups 3 and 4 would show the least amount of illusory correlation. This hypothesis was not confirmed. However, the Chapman finding that Ss predominantly associated the concept of anality with preconceived problems of homosexuality was partly replicated. Ss also appeared to create their own illusory correlate. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Heterosexual bias in psychological research on lesbianism and male homosexuality.

Heterosexual bias is here defined as a belief system that values heterosexuality as superior to and/or more "natural" than homosexuality. It is argued that the reconceptualization of homosexuality as a valid option for an adult life-style would suggest changes in the questions formulated, the data collected, and the interpretations made in research on lesbianism and male homosexuality. A taxonomy of research questions in this area was generated from English-language journal articles listed in Psychological Abstracts from 1967 through 1974. Case histories, treatment articles, theories, reviews of literature, books, dissertations, and unpublished papers read at conventions were not included. The 139 remaining studies were assessed and reviewed in terms of the extent to which they reflect a change in the social values of the behavior under study. Suggestions are made for priorities in future research. (59 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the diagnosis of homosexuality from the Rorschach.

Presents an evaluation of the Rorschach as a means of assessing homosexuality. Using the APA Technical Recommendations as a guide, such factors as the definition of the criterion, the interscorer agreement, the effect of total number of responses on the final score, the stability of the measure over time, the criterion and construct validity, and the overlap between groups are discussed. The major focus is on the scoring system devised by Wheeler, an approach to the assessment of homosexuality which has received most of the research attention to date. Due to such limitations as poor experimental design, methodological and statistical confounding, or the use of statistics with no available probability levels, the findings of a good deal of the research in this area are difficult to interpret. The results of those interpretable studies, however, have typically been found to be favorable. The limitations in the clinical use of the Rorschach as a measure of homosexuality, as well as some directions in which future research might head, are discussed. (29 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The hard science of Rorschach research: What do we know and where do we go?

As the final article in the Special Series on "The Utility of the Rorschach for Clinical Assessment," the authors provide an overview of this instrument's current status. They begin with a thorough review of global and focused meta-analyses, including an expanded analysis of K. C. H. Parker et al's (see record 1989-14153-001) data set, and conclude that Rorschach, MMPI, and IQ scales each produce roughly similar effect size magnitudes, although all tests have greater validity for some purposes than for others. Because this evidentiary foundation justifies addressing other issues, the authors build on contributions to the Special Series to identify 11 salient theoretical and empirical gaps in the Rorschach knowledge base and make recommendations for addressing these challenges to further the evolution of the Rorschach and document its strengths and inherent limitations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Utility of the Rorschach in predicting movement in psychiatric casework.

50 women were administered psychological tests at the time their children were institutionalized for emotional disturbances. Utilizing objective Rorschach signs, psychologists predicted which women would show movement in psychiatric casework. Highly significant agreement was found between the predictions and the actual outcomes of casework based on Hunt-Kogan ratings of movement following at least 1 yr. of casework. It was concluded that this method of using Rorschach data possesses considerable research utility, and that further investigation with these procedures may eventually contribute to increased efficiency in use of clinical facilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some observations on the validity of the Rorschach Inkblot Method.

Current literature reflects a persistent inclination in some quarters to denigrate the Rorschach Inkblot Method as an invalid and useless instrument for assessing personality functioning. Although perhaps warranted to some extent in years past, such harsh criticism of the Rorschach runs counter to abundant contemporary data demonstrating its psychometric soundness and practical utility. This article offers some observations concerning the kinds of information that are necessary to validate assessment instruments and provides examples of lines of research that document Rorschach validity and utility for various purposes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the persistence of illusory correlations associated with the Rorschach.

L. J. Chapman and J. P. Chapman (see record 1969-13004-001) found that illusory correlations associated with the Rorschach persist in the presence of valid symptom-sign relations. Data from 120 undergraduates who completed 4 forms of a word-association questionnaire are presented which demonstrate that control over various levels of associative connections within Chapman's experimental task materials may have been insufficient. Further research needs to control such methodological confounds to evaluate adequately the persistence of illusory correlations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vocal and manual reaction time estimates of interhemispheric transmission time.

Examines research designed to estimate interhemispheric transmission time (IHTT) by measuring vocal and manual RTs to laterally presented unpatterned visual stimuli. The variability reported with these measures suggests that they are invalid, although this variability may reflect differences in the procedures used. When RT procedures are differentiated on the basis of task demands, the appropriate parametric analyses are shown to have been done using simple manual RT procedures to demonstrate that they provide reliable and valid estimates of IHTT. In contrast, research using vocal or more complex manual RT procedures is not considered sufficiently comprehensive to allow determination of the reliability or validity of the measures involved. It is suggested that unresolved issues can be addressed using combined behavioral and event-related potential analyses. (69 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes towards homosexuality and male and female reactions to homosexual and heterosexual slides.

Investigated the relationship between attitudes toward male and female homosexuality and Ss' reactions to slides of various explicit sexual activities (including homosexuality, lesbianism, heterosexual activity, and group sex). Attitudes toward homosexuality and lesbianism were highly correlated. Saskatchewan males were more antihomosexual than an Ontario sample, supporting the suggestion that there is greater concern with "machismo" among males on the Prairies. 34 male and 31 female undergraduates were divided into those opposed to homosexuality (anti-H) and those not opposed (H-neutral) on the basis of attitude scale scores. While the 4 groups substantially agreed in the relative rating of the slides, anti-H Ss of both sexes rated the slides as more pornographic and evaluated them more negatively than H-neutral Ss. Females rated them more negatively than males, while males rated all but the male themes (male nude, masturbation, homosexual) more sexually arousing than did females. Males reacted more negatively to the male themes than to the comparable female themes. Female Ss showed no such difference. (French summary) (1 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A genetic approach to the interpretation and evaluation of the process-reactive distinction in schizophrenia.

The hypothesis tested was that schizophrenics manifesting the "process" syndrome show more regressive and immature thought processes than those showing the "reactive" syndrome. 24 male and 27 female hospitalized schizophrenics who were newly admitted served as Ss. Social history data were evaluated in terms of the process-reaction dimension and their psychological test results were evaluated for thought processes. Instruments used were the Elgin Prognostic Scale, Rorschach, and Benjamin Proverbs. A significant correlation was found between the Rorschach genetic level score and the Elgin Prognostic Scale for male and female Ss. Only for the male Ss was the hypothesis confirmed with the Proverbs test. 29 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The clinical interaction: With special reference to the Rorschach.

Reviews the book "The clinical interaction: With special reference to the Rorschach," by Seymour B. Sarason (see record 1955-00896-000). Clinical psychologists who use the Rorschach technique have been sorely criticized by their more experimentally oriented colleagues for failing to take into account the numerous Rorschach research studies. The use of the Rorschach as a psychodiagnostic instrument still seems to be based upon the original, preexperimental statements of Rorschach and some of his disciples, with little or no attention paid to those investigations that have attempted to validate such statements. Sarason's effort to handle this problem of integrating research findings with the clinical use of the Rorschach will help answer these criticisms and will bring the Rorschach closer to the main body of contemporary empirical psychology. The author's pro-Rorschach bias occasionally leads him to conclusions that others might find unacceptable. This bias is clearly seen in the treatment of the Rorschach indices of performance under stress. Despite the criticisms, the present volume represents a significant contribution to the literature of the Rorschach and general clinical psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Female homosexuality: Choice without volition--A psychoanalytic study.

Reviews the book, Female homosexuality: Choice without volition--A psychoanalytic study by Elaine V. Siegel (see record 1988-97461-000). In Female Homosexuality: Choice Without Volition, Elaine Siegel makes her theoretical lineage and clinical goals explicit from the outset; she dedicates the book to Charles Socarides, MD, and credits her "immersal in and application of" his work with the fact that "some of [her] patients were able to become heterosexual." Socarides is best known for his theories about developmental deficits in male homosexuals and for his ardent work in the 1970s to persuade the American Psychiatric Association to maintain homosexuality as a psychiatric diagnosis. Siegel applies his schematization of male homosexuality to female homosexuals, with a twist. She argues that whereas male homosexuals tend to overvalue their genitals, female homosexuals have failed to "take full possession of their vaginas", a failure that both she and Theodore L. Dorpat in his introduction refer to as a "calamity." The bulk of the book consists of elaborate case presentations of eight of Siegel's analysands, preceded and followed by several theoretical chapters, one of which describes Siegel's "psychoanalytic armamentarium." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aggression in thought and action of emotionally disturbed boys.

Studied relations between signs of aggression on the Rorschach and the TAT and ratings of behavioral aggression in 63 7-12 yr. old institutionalized boys. The majority of individual Rorschach signs did not differentiate between high and low aggressive groups but scores based on a cluster of 7 signs correlated significantly with behavior ratings. Of 4 scoring systems applied to TAT stories, 2 were completely ineffective in predicting behavioral aggression, and 2 led to significant findings, but the magnitude of these associations was not particularly impressive. Psychologists' clinical evaluations of aggression, based on comprehensive psychological assessment of individual cases, were highly associated with the overt behavior ratings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maintained hypersexuality between male rats following chronically induced limbic seizures: implications for bisexuality in complex partial epileptic seizures

Adult male albino rats were given a treatment that produced hypothermia after the induction of limbic seizures by a single subcutaneous injection of lithium and pilocarpine. When housed in groups, these rats exhibited marked hypersexuality (for at least two months), defined as repeated mounting of another male, pelvic thrusting, and persistent genital licking; while the male was mounted, female postures were assumed. There were also periods of physical submission. During active periods three of the four rats were mounted and thrusting in tandem. Possible relevance to the Klüver-Bucy syndrome and to bisexuality and homosexuality in males who report elevated complex partial epileptic-like signs is discussed.     

Personal constructs and homosexual stress.

Evaluated a personal-construct approach to the assessment of the potential for homosexual threat (homosexual stress). The measure, modified from personal construct research on death threat, was tested with 20 male and 20 female undergraduates. Those Ss who were more stressed by homosexuality had more negative attitudes toward homosexuality. Further, those Ss with the most negative attitudes toward homosexuals were those who saw homosexuality as invalidating more important constructs. Males who viewed homosexuality as more stressful tended to construe homosexuality as a more personally meaningful issue; females showed the opposite tendency. The homosexual stress measure was independent of authoritarianism (California F Scale) and was not highly related to Religious Fundamentalism Scale scores. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validation of an attitude scale as a device for predicting behavior.

Prior to the football season, 253 USC students completed a questionnaire indicating their intentions for attending each game, and their attitudes toward football games. They subsequently reported attendance at each game, "… although predictions of future behavior were not highly valid and the predictive validity of the attitude scale used was less high, a high degree of predictive validity might be secured by grouping individuals into categories determined by both attitudescale scores and individual predictions." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of the Rorschach test as a diagnostic criterion.

In his American Psychologist article, Joseph Lerner (see record 1964-01189-001) kindly ascribed to me words which properly belong to Samuel J. Beck. Beck does refer to my Perceptanalysis (Piotrowski & Lewis, 1957), but not on the same page. His words express my past belief. At present my attitude is more complex. It changed after I checked some "blind" Rorschach diagnoses and clinical psychiatric diagnoses on the same patients (Piotrowski, 1950, p. 363), and read published reviews of the reliability and validity of clinical psychiatric diagnoses. These revealed that a considerable percentage of first admission patients, discharged as psychoneurotics, are rediagnosed as schizophrenics after a re-examination several years later. In fact, some schizophrenic conditions escape detection through clinical observations for as long as 10 years, despite intermittent clinical examinations. The Rorschach test definitely is highly sensitive to schizophrenia even though at times some remitted or much improved schizophrenics produce test records failing to give any indication of the psychosis, let alone of the past acute psychotic episodes Lerner stated that "the Rorschach alone is of little assistance unless it is an integral part of the total evaluation." Well, if the Rorschach is never used as an independent diagnostic criterion, we shall never know how good or bad a diagnostic criterion it is. Using it as a part source of information, is to contaminate it (that is why "blind" diagnoses are important). The second point is: It seems advisable to follow the rule that if clinical observations or the Rorschach test--or both--suggest schizophrenia, this diagnosis is likely to be valid. This rule is compatible with Lerner's conclusion that an evaluation based on all available sources of information is better than one which utilizes only one diagnostic criterion, be it test, anamnesis, or clinical examination. To be certain that the Rorschach test is a dependable diagnostic criterion in neuropsychiatry we must have first highly reliable diagnostic test procedures. A digital computer program of Rorschach interpretation, including numerous diagnostic formulae, has been written to achieve objective and perfectly reliable application of the diagnostic test rules to individual cases. The computer program will be submitted to a stringent test of validity. We shall then be in possession of a test which will yield independent and uncontaminated diagnoses. These, in turn, will be available for use independently or as part of a "total evaluation." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)