脑卒中恢复期干预措施研究近况

脑卒中是严重威胁人类健康的最常见疾病之一,其发病率、病死率、病残率高,是世界范围内死亡和残疾的主要因素之一.根据世界卫生组织统计,全世界每年约有500万人死于脑卒中,有1 500万人患非致死性脑卒中[1].在中国,每年约有200万人首次发生脑卒中,150万人死于脑卒中及其并发症,幸存的脑卒中患者中约75%的患者有不同程度残疾,约1/3的患者严重残疾而影响生活自理,脑卒中患者复发率高,5年内约半数患者复发,复发患者预后更差[2].     

创伤性颅脑外伤注意障碍的神经影像电生理研究进展

正创伤性颅脑外伤(traumatic brain injury,TBI)是神经外科常见疾病,不论国内国外TBI的发生率均相当高,研究文献报道美国每年约170万人遭受脑外伤,而中国TBI的发病率为67.38/10万人口,病死率约为30%[1]。尽管随着脑外伤治疗手段不断提高,已大大降低早期病死率,但是仍留有很高的致残率。TBI的严重后果包括运动障碍、知觉障碍、认知缺陷、语言障碍、外伤性癫痫、人格改变等。其中认知功能     

颅脑损伤后神经递质系统变化与认知障碍的研究进展

近年来,颅脑损伤(traumatic brain injury,TBI)的发生率、致残率逐渐增高,随着对脑外伤急性期治疗F段的不断提高,已能大大降低早期的死亡率.然而,它仍是慢性期致残的主要原因,其中认知功能障碍是最持久和最严重的症状之一[1].虽然大部分患者中这些功能在1年后恢复正常,但仍有10％～15％的轻型脑损伤患者存在功能障碍,在中、重型TBI患者中比例更高[2].TBI后认知障碍的确切机制至今仍不十分清楚,研究发现大脑内学习和记忆等认知活动与多种神经递质相关,包括乙酰胆碱(acetylcholine,Ach),去甲肾上腺素,多巴胺(DA),5-羟色胺(5-HT),γ-氨基丁酸,谷氨酸,神经营养因 子等[3].本文就TBI后主要神经递质系统的变化及其与认知障碍的研究进展进行简要综述.     

Sigma-1受体在缺血性脑卒中中的研究进展

我国每年约有250万人发生缺血性脑卒中,其中70％ ～80％ 的患者存在不同程度的残疾[1 ].美国一项对82家医院2083例缺血性脑卒中患者的研究发现,约1/3的患者在脑卒中后3个月出现永久性的残疾或死亡[2 ].目前脑卒中的治疗策略首选是溶栓治疗,但是治疗时间窗窄,只有3％ ～5％ 的患者能获得有效治疗[3 ].深...     

中国卒中康复治疗指南简化版

卒中的特点是高发病率,高致残率和高死亡率.中国每年新发卒中患者约200万人,其中70％～80％的卒中患者因为残疾不能独立生活[1].卒中康复是经循证医学证实的对降低致残率最有效的方法,是卒中组织化管理中不可或缺的关键环节,现代康复理论和实践证明,卒中后进行有效的康复能够加速康复的进程,减轻功能上的残疾,节约社会资源[2].     

乙醇对颅脑创伤预后影响的研究进展

颅脑创伤(TBI)已成为世界范围内一个重要的公共卫生问题,高死亡率和致残率给社会和家庭带来沉重的经济负担.早在1985年,美国全年因TBI所造成的经济负担就达378亿美元,现巳升至每年600亿美元.我国交通伤是发生TBI最主要的原因[1],而机动车交通伤发生的主要原因是酒后驾车.     

积极应用高新技术提高颅脑创伤救治水平

随着社会经济的发展，由于交通和工伤事故等原因所致的颅脑创伤(TBI)发生率也在增加。目前在发达国家TBI发生率约为150～250人／10万／年，而我国为100～200人／10万／年，成为影响人类健康的重要问题。近20～30年以来，随着先进诊断技术(CT、MR)的应用，包括直升飞机参与的院前急救体系的建立和完善，以     

地震灾害中关于颅脑创伤急救的思考

地球上,地震以每年超过一百万次的频率发生着,但是真正造成巨大人员和物资损失的大地震全球平均三年一次.自20世纪以来,中国共发生7级以上地震36次,共伤亡78万余人.其中死亡人数超过100人的地震16次,死伤781 521人[1].最著名的是1976年唐山大地震,死亡约25万人[2].     

脑爆震伤动物模型评价

正据报道,美国颅脑损伤(traumatic brain injury,TBI)最近每年发生约140万次,占外伤性死亡的1/3。美军在伊拉克和阿富汗战争中穿戴先进的盔甲,大大提高了生存率,不可避免地增加了非致命损伤~([1])。2000~2006年,美军有26万余人遭受TBI,约5万人属于中重度TBI,大约70%参战回国的TBI人员是由爆炸所引起~([2])。美军部署到伊拉克和阿富汗军人中,有10%~20%人受到脑爆震伤(blast TBI,bTBI)的     

国家自然科学基金资助脑血管病研究十年回顾

脑血管病是指脑血管破裂出血或血栓形成,引起的以脑部出血性或缺血性损伤症状为主要临床表现的一组疾病,又称脑血管意外或脑卒中,俗称"脑中风".我国脑血管病午发病率约为200/10万,患病率约为550/10万,病死率约为130/10万,在我国城乡居民死因中居首位[1].依此推算,全国每年脑卒中新发病例约达250万例,每年死于脑血管病者超过150万例,脑卒中生存者600～700万例;其发病率和病死率与世界各国相比均位居前列[2].     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Anticonvulsant Drugs and Cognitive Function: A Review of the Literature

Summary: Alterations of cognitive function are separate from disturbances of behavior seen in association with epilepsy. The nature of the cognitive disability may to a certain extent depend on the seizure type. Partial seizures, mainly derived from a temporal lobe focus, impair memory tasks, while generalized seizures seem to have more effect on attentional abilities. A number of studies, reviewed in this paper, suggest that anticonvulsant drugs further impair cognitive function. Maximal impairments are seen in patients receiving polytherapy: rationalization of polytherapy improves cognitive abilities. Studies in children and adults have allowed differentiation of the effects of various commonly used antiepileptic agents. Maximal cognitive deficits are seen with. phenytoin, while phenobarbital and sodium valproate induce moderate disturbances, and carbamazepine seems relatively free from such toxicity. Further research is needed on the interrelationship between types of seizure disorders, types of anticonvulsant medications, and cognitive function.