Profiles of Housing Cost Burden in the United States

In this study, the ordered logistic regression model indicates that renters suffer a greater housing cost burden than homeowners and that the lower the income of the household, the larger the portion of income that is spent for housing. Further, the model also shows that the burden of high housing costs falls disproportionately on certain groups of American households. Compared to the reference group, two single-risk groups (Asian-American households and households with three or more children) and two dual-risk groups (female-headed households with three or more children and minority households with three or more children) tend to have a higher risk of excessive housing costs. Elderly households and three elderly-related groups (female-headed elderly households, minority elderly households, and female-headed minority elderly households), however, tend to have a lower risk of housing cost burden than other households. The housing cost burden of the reference group is comparable to the housing cost burden of each of the following groups: for single female-headed households; Black households; Hispanic households; and female-headed minority households. The policy implications of these findings are discussed in the paper.     

Female-headed families: a comparative perspective of the Caribbean and the developed world

Official statistics indicate that 22-44% of women in CARICOM countries are sole heads of households. Some have argued that there are so many female-headed households in the Caribbean simply because those societies have failed to realize the nuclear family norms espoused by the American sociologists of the 1950s. On the contrary, family formations are adaptations to economic and social conditions, with the nuclear family being only one of many family forms. Women have long been acknowledged as the backbone of Caribbean families. In the dominant culture of the region, marriage is not considered necessary for procreation, so women may choose to have and raise children independently. The female-headed household widely seen in the Caribbean is becoming more widely seen in the West. The notion that single-parent families are dysfunctional needs to be re-examined and equal recognition and support given to all family forms.     

Dynamics of earnings inequality among female-headed households in the United States

The labor market in the United States has gone through a number of noticeable changes, one of which is a rise participation of women in the labor force. A number of studies have investigated the consequences of these changes on wage, income, or earnings inequality in a static framework. This study investigated the consequences of these changes on earnings inequality over time. The earnings inequality among male- and female-headed households is compared. I further considered the factors that might have influenced the earnings inequality among female-headed households. Short-term and long-term inequality was measured from 1978–1986. It was found that short-term inequalities generally have a rising trend and contain transitory components; long-term inequalities declined in the early years because of a smoothing of transitory components; and within-group inequalities are the principle determinant of overall inequality. Education, race, age, and marital status were considered as possible contributors to the overall inequality. Education and race were shown to be the most influential factor explaining inequality among female-headed households and explained a third of the observed inequality. Earnings stability profiles reveal the existence of permanent and chronic inequality.     

Lone-parent families in cross-cultural perspectives: ethnic and immigration issues

"One-parent families represent about 10-20 percent of all families in Europe, North America, New Zealand and Australia. About 90 percent are headed by women, who have become heads of households mainly due to divorce, separation, and never-married status. The presentation will review existing research and data related to cross-cultural one-parent families. The topics covered include routes to lone parenthood, characteristics common among female-headed families, positive and negative aspects of this type of family, up-to-date statistics, and a discussion of children living in one-parent families. Implications for immigration and ethnicity issues will be included...as well as research implications and intervention strategies for the one-parent family."     

UNRAVELING THE ECONOMIC PARADOX OF FEMALE-HEADED HOUSEHOLDS IN MEXICO: The Role of Family Networks

An extensive amount of research has shown that female-headed households are among the most disadvantaged in the United States. By contrast, households headed by single mothers in Mexico have median per capita income levels that are the same or higher than those headed by men and are no more likely to be living in poverty. These findings are surprising, given the many disadvantages that Mexican women face in the labor market and the added difficulties for single mothers of managing work and family life. We propose four explanations for the relatively high income levels of female-headed households in Mexico: (1) female heads' more advanced stage in the life course compared to male heads, (2) the greater financial support they receive from extended family members, (3) the international migration of the partners of female heads, and (4) a selection process whereby only women with sufficient income head their own households, while others move into households headed by someone else. Using a nationally representative survey we find that economic transfers from relatives living within the country and abroad, as well as a selection effect explain female-headed households' relatively high income.     

Female Headed Households in Iran (1976–2006)

Here we address the issue of female-headed households in Iran in an effort to discover whether the incidences, causes, and consequences are similar to those seen elsewhere in both developed and developing countries. In the United States such households are not always found to have resulted from involuntary, relatively homogeneous causes, but there is a persistent finding of associated poverty. From Iranian census data including the past 40 years, we found a rather dramatic, albeit not extremely large, countercultural increase in female-headed households; however, such households neither resulted from common causes nor led necessarily to poverty. We consider these results in relation to their implications about changes in family and women's roles in this highly transitional society in which tradition and modernity seem to coexist and family changes emerge slowly and selectively.     

The Severely-Distressed African American Family in the Crack Era: Empowerment is not Enough

Numerous African American families have struggled for generations with persistent poverty, especially in the inner city. These conditions were further strained during the 1980s and 1990s by the widespread use of crack cocaine. For many, crack use became an obsession, dominated their lives, and superseded family responsibilities. This behavior placed additional pressure on already stressed kin support networks. This paper explores the processes prevailing in two households during this period. In the 2000s, children born to members of the Crack Generation are avoiding use of crack but face major deficits from their difficult childhoods. This presents both challenges and opportunities. The discussion considers initiatives from both a social problems and a strengths perspective that could help these families and help these families help themselves to advance their economic circumstances.     

The Effects of Ethnic Identity on Household Budget Allocation to Status Conveying Goods

The theory of compensatory consumption suggests that a possible lack of traditional avenues for fulfilling needs for social status may lead ethnic minorities to shift measures of social status from traditional indicators such as occupational prestige to consumption indicators of status conveying goods. In this study we investigate whether a household’s ethnic identity affects its budget allocation to status conveying goods. Annual budget shares for apparel, housing, and home furnishings are used for measuring status consumption. Results show that Asian American households allocate more of their budget to housing, while African American more to apparel, compared to European households. Hispanic households allocate more of their budget to both apparel and housing than European American households, but to a lesser degree compared to Asian Americans to housing and African Americans to apparel.     

“How Do I View My Sister?”

Abstract

Little research to date has focused on what factors interfere with the process of African American women and men developing and maintaining healthy relationships. A better understanding of these factors can help to improve relationships between these individuals and create stronger families within the African American community. Research has documented that prevailing stereotypes of African American women impact the lives of African American women and that stereotypes have the potential to impact interpersonal relationships. The purpose of the current study was to assess whether African American men endorsed stereotypic views of African American women, and to discuss the potential of these views to negatively impact the quality of relationships between African American women and men. Results indicate that 71% of men surveyed endorsed stereotypic views of African American women. Implications of these findings and future directions for research are presented.     

Do employment and type of exit influence child maltreatment among families leaving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families?

Research has documented that the transition from Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) can be a critical period that results in elevated stress for families. The present study utilizes administrative data to examine the experiences of families exiting TANF and factors that influence subsequent child maltreatment, with particular focus on type of exit from TANF and earned income from employment. Families in the study are 18,023 female-headed households from an urban Ohio county who exited TANF between January 1, 1999 and December 31, 2002. Of these families, 894 (4.96%) experienced an indicated or substantiated finding of maltreatment within two years of their initial exit from TANF. Cox proportional hazard models identified several significant predictors of child maltreatment. Findings indicate that families with an involuntary exit from TANF were at increased risk of a substantiated or indicated finding of maltreatment while families with higher earnings from employment were at a reduced risk of maltreatment. These findings suggest that policy makers and program staff may need to reconsider their approach with these families to ensure the well-being of children. Strategies to improve employment opportunities and limit involuntary exits are discussed.     

Why We Can't Wait!

Abstract

An Afrocentric theoretical approach is utilized as a framework in guiding practitioners working with African American families. Afrocentricity places African American history, culture, and African heritage at the center of persons of African American families. An Afrocentric perspective also epitomizes the political, economic, and social freedom of African American families and communities. More importantly, understanding the cultural dynamics of African American families and their historical and contemporary use of resources (e.g., worldview, language, spirituality, etc.) to adapt and overcome certain life circumstances can be useful in assessment and treatment.     

Elder Abuse and Neglect in African American Families: Informing Practice Based on Ecological and Cultural Frameworks

Despite the rapid growth of the elderly African American population in the U.S., elder abuse and neglect in African American families continue to be underdeveloped areas of study. This article presents an ecological and culturally informed framework for the study of elder abuse in African American populations. The model was developed based on Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological Theory. The model identifies risk factors associated with different systems that have an influence on the lives of African American families. Cultural protective factors also are identified in the model. The model is intended to provide an understanding of elder abuse and neglect in African American families by considering the influence of contextual factors such as the legacy of slavery, social exclusion, and structural segregation and racism. Specific suggestions for practice are proposed according to cultural strengths of African American communities as well as the ecological premises of the model.     

Housing hardship and energy insecurity among native-born and immigrant low-income families with children in the United States

The costs for rent and utilities account for the largest share of living expenses, yet these two critical dimensions of material hardship have seldom been examined concurrently in population-based studies. This paper employs multivariate statistical analysis using American Community Survey data to demonstrate the relative risk ratio of low-income renter-occupied households with children experiencing ‘rent burden', ‘energy insecurity', or a ‘double burden’ as opposed to no burden. Findings suggest that low-income households are more likely to experience these economic hardships in general but that specific groups are disproportionately burdened in different ways. For instance, whereas immigrants are more likely to experience rental burden, they are less likely to experience energy insecurity and are also spared from the double burden. In contrast, native-born African Americans are more likely than all other groups to experience the double burden. These results may be driven by the housing stock available to certain groups due to racial residential segregation, decisions regarding the quality of housing low-income householders are able to afford, as well as home-country values, such as modest living and energy conservation practices, among immigrant families. This paper also points to important policy gaps in safety net benefits related to housing and energy targeting low-income households.     

Sex Ratio and Family Structure in the Nonmetropolitan United States

The sex ratio hypothesis maintains that the ratio of marriageable men to marriageable women can have major implications for family formation and structure. Despite extensive research attention, the sex ratio hypothesis has yet to be tested on general nonmetropolitan populations. This study of nonmetropolitan counties in the United States found strong support for the sex ratio hypothesis. Counties with low sex ratios (shortage of men) had lower proportions of married couple households and a corresponding higher proportion of female-headed households. These low sex ratio counties also had fewer adults married, and a lower proportion of their children living in married couple households with a higher proportion of children living in female-headed households.     

Deindustrialization, Female-Headed Families, and Black and White Juvenile Homicide Rates, 1970-1990

Recent research in urban sociology posits that the proliferation of female-headed families in American cities is a result of declining economic prospects due to profound changes in the structure of the urban economy. Meanwhile, macro-level theory and research in criminology suggest that an association exists between family structure and rates of lethal violence among juveniles. Given these two streams of sociological thought, there is good reason to expect that increases in juvenile homicide rates since 1970 may be due, in part, to changes in the structure of the economy and the family during the 1970 to 1990 period. However, the nexus between deindustrialization, female-headed families, and juvenile homicide has received little attention in extant research. The objective of the current study is to remedy this gap in the literature by bringing together ideas about deindustrialization and female headship in an attempt to explain city-level changes in Black and White juvenile homicide rates between 1970 and 1990. In particular, the research investigates the hypothesis that a decline in the manufacturing base of cities increased rates of female headship and thereby indirectly raised homicide rates. Race differences in the hypothesized structural relationships also are examined.     

Challenging implicit bias: preparing students to practice with African American families

ABSTRACT

The disparity of African American families in the foster care system is a concern in the field of child welfare services and the social work profession. African American families experience unique challenges related to discriminatory practices and implicit biases in the child welfare system and by mandated reporters. To address these inequalities, state and local agencies have implemented prevention and intervention services to support minority families. Additionally, child welfare agencies have invested in professional development training for their workers to alleviate possible intolerant practices. This article describes implicit biases and considers how they could contribute to the disparity of African American families involved in the child welfare system. Furthermore, the article presents approaches to help social work students to identify and challenge their implicit biases to support culturally sensitive practices while working with African American families. It concludes with implications for social work education.     

INCOME INEQUALITY: THE IMPLICATIONS OF ECONOMIC STRUCTURE AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS

During the past few decades income inequality has been increasing in the United States and other developed nations, and is having major social consequences. In this study county-level data for the United States was analyzed to test the relative importance of three alternative approaches for explaining increased levels of inequality. These three approaches include economic structure, social conditions, and a model that maintains that both social conditions and inequality are a function of economic structure. The results revealed that social conditions were much more strongly related to inequality than economic structure and little support was found for the theoretical model. The two social conditions most strongly related to inequality included female employment and the percent of female-headed households. Counties with high levels of female employment tended to have low levels of inequality, while counties with high proportions of female-headed households tend to have high levels of inequality. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

FEMALE-HEADED FAMILIES: EFFECTS ON CHILDREN AND CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS*

The social psychological research pertaining to female-headed families published between 1970–1980 is reviewed. The literature indicates that theoretically children do not need the presence of the same-sex/opposite-sex parents in the family in order to develop sex-role behavior. Children in female-headed families are likely to have good emotional adjustment, good self-esteem except when they are stigmatized, intellectual development comparable to others in the same socioeconomic status, and rates of juvenile delinquency comparable to others in the same socioeconomic status. In light of these findings, suggestions are made for counseling women who head families.     

Elder abuse and neglect in African American families: informing practice based on ecological and cultural frameworks

Despite the rapid growth of the elderly African American population in the U.S., elder abuse and neglect in African American families continue to be underdeveloped areas of study. This article presents an ecological and culturally informed framework for the study of elder abuse in African American populations. The model was developed based on Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological Theory. The model identifies risk factors associated with different systems that have an influence on the lives of African American families. Cultural protective factors also are identified in the model. The model is intended to provide an understanding of elder abuse and neglect in African American families by considering the influence of contextual factors such as the legacy of slavery, social exclusion, and structural segregation and racism. Specific suggestions for practice are proposed according to cultural strengths of African American communities as well as the ecological premises of the model.     

Expenditures on children by female-headed households

The 1982–84 Consumer Expenditure Survey data are used to analyze expenditures made by nonpoor female-headed households for child-related goods and services. These child costs are measured using Engel's (1895) food share equivalency methodology, previously used by Espenshade (1984) to analyze child-related expenditures in two-parent households. Results show that single, female-headed households on average spend about $112,000 to $142,000 in 1990 dollars to raise a single child to age 18. Findings are also compared with those of two other recently published studies of single-parent child cost estimates. Professor Douthitt's research interests include analysis of the effects of family composition on money and time expenditures. Professor Huh's current research interests include analysis of gender roles and family time use.