The influence of preparation method on children’s liking for vegetables

This study aimed to investigate how different preparation methods influence children’s liking for vegetables. Participants were children from three age groups (4–6 years N = 46; 7–8 years N = 25; 11–12 years N = 23) and young adults (18–25 years N = 22). The participants tasted and ranked six preparation methods for carrots and French beans: mashed, steamed, boiled, stir-fried, grilled and deep-fried. In addition, the different vegetable preparations were rated on 15 attributes. All participants preferred boiled and steamed vegetables over the other preparations (p < 0.05). Boiled and stir-fried were the most familiar preparation methods for both vegetables. Vegetable liking was positively related to a uniform surface and the typical vegetable taste, and moderately related to crunchiness, whereas brown colouring and a granular texture were negatively related to vegetable liking. On the basis of these results, we conclude that children’s vegetable liking is influenced by a complex mixture of a uniform appearance, easily controllable textures and a typical, familiar vegetable taste.     

Exploring how age,medication usage,and dentures effect the sensory perception and liking of oral nutritional supplements in older adults

Sensory perception of Oral Nutritional Supplements (ONS) by older and younger adults has been investigated, but few studies have examined the sensory perception of ONS within different older adult cohorts. This study sought to investigate effects of older age, dentures, and medications on sensory perception, liking, and intake of a high- and low-viscosity ONS (0.009 and 0.177 Pa.s respectively at 50.1 s⁻¹) and assess effects of ONS on appetite.Eighty older adults (51 aged 65–74 years, 29 aged 75 + years, mean age 74 ± 8 years, age range 65–97 years, 35 men, 45 women) evaluated two ONS over two different days. Each ONS (200 mL) was consumed over five sips (40 mL each). The panellists evaluated each sip using a check-all-that-apply questionnaire (CATA) comprising taste and texture attributes. After each CATA evaluation panellists recorded their liking using a 9-point hedonic scale followed by their hunger, fullness, desire to consume more ONS, and thirst using 100 mm visual analogue scales.The over 75 year olds had significantly lower appetite than the 65–74 year olds on tasting both ONS. Denture wearing influenced the mouthfeel while medication status effected the flavour perception of the high viscosity ONS. Liking did not change across the five sips for any study cohort, however, sensory perception changed with increasing sips. This study provides insight on factors affecting ONS adherence in older adults. Avoiding perceptions of watery/runny mouthfeel while maintaining creaminess may improve acceptability and adherence. The study justifies the CATA methodology for use in different older adult cohorts.     

Liking and the orosensory perception of food in a stress vs. rest condition in overweight and normal weight participants

Stress and increased body weight may lead to decreased sensory or hedonic perception. Rewarding value of food consists of liking and wanting; this study emphasizes characterization of orosensory perception and liking during stress. The effect of stress on orosensory attributes of food and liking was tested in overweight and normal weight participants. Thirty-nine participants (26f/13m, age 30 ± 11 y), 24 normal weight (BMI 22 ± 2 kg/m², waist/hip-ratio 0.78 ± 0.02) and 15 visceral-overweight (BMI 29 ± 2 kg/m², waist/hip-ratio 0.87 ± 0.02) tasted 67 food items randomly in a rest and stress condition, subsequently rating orosensory attributes (i.e., sweetness, bitterness, saltiness, sourness, umami, creaminess, crispiness) and liking using visual analog scales. Stress was induced using an unsolvable math task in a noisy context. In overweight participants, orosensory perception was less pronounced, especially with respect to sweetness. Liking was related to orosensory perception, the relationships were the same in both conditions. Liking was scored lower by overweight vs. normal weight participants. Stress vs. rest reduced orosensory perception in normal weight participants. Stress vs. rest reduced liking equally for normal weight and overweight participants. In conclusion, our results show that orosensory perception and liking of food are reduced in overweight compared to normal weight participants; the latter is especially emphasized during stress.     

Sensory profiles and consumer acceptability of a range of sugar-reduced products on the UK market

Current UK intake of non-milk extrinsic sugars (NMES) is above recommendations. Reducing the sugar content of processed high sugar foods through reformulation is one option for reducing consumption of NMES at a population level. However, reformulation can alter the sensory attributes of food products and influence consumer liking. This study evaluated consumer acceptance of a selection of products that are commercially-available in the UK; these included regular and sugar-reduced baked beans, strawberry jam, milk chocolate, cola and cranberry & raspberry juice. Sweeteners were present in the reformulated chocolate (maltitol), cola (aspartame and acesulfame-K) and juice (sucralose) samples. Healthy, non-smoking consumers (n = 116; 55 men, 61 women, age: 33 ± 9 years; BMI: 25.7 ± 4.6 kg/m²) rated the products for overall liking and on liking of appearance, flavor and texture using a nine-point hedonic scale. There were significant differences between standard and reduced sugar products in consumers' overall liking and on liking of each modality (appearance, flavor and texture; all P < 0.0001). For overall liking, only the regular beans and cola were significantly more liked than their reformulated counterparts (P < 0.0001). Cluster analysis identified three consumer clusters that were representative of different patterns of consumer liking. For the largest cluster (cluster 3: 45%), there was a significant difference in mean liking scores across all products, except jam. Differences in liking were predominantly driven by sweet taste in 2 out of 3 clusters. The current research has demonstrated that a high proportion of consumers prefer conventional products over sugar-reduced products across a wide range of product types (45%) or across selected products (27%), when tasted unbranded, and so there is room for further optimization of commercial reduced sugar products that were evaluated in the current study. Future work should evaluate strategies to facilitate compliance to dietary recommendations on NMES and free sugars, such as the impact of sugar-reduced food exposure on their acceptance.     

Vegetable preparation practices for 5–6 years old Australian children as reported by their parents; relationships with liking and consumption

Vegetables are the food category least accepted by children, which is a key reason for their low intake. Common sense suggests that vegetable preparation, liking and consumption is idiosyncratic to each vegetable, e.g. carrots may be eaten raw, but raw broccoli may be unacceptable, however scientific evidence is largely lacking. This study measured children’s experiences, liking and consumption of vegetables in relation to preparation practices at home. Questionnaire data were collected for a comprehensive range of preparation methods (raw, boiling, steaming, frying, roasting, and seven ways of preparing it with other dishes (e.g. soup)) across five common vegetables, i.e. carrot, potato, broccoli, cauliflower, and green beans. Measures included experience with preparation methods (yes/no), liking (9 point hedonic scale) and consumption frequency (5 point scale). Data were reported by parents for their child (N = 82, 5–6 years, low and high vegetable intake), and child/parent pairs were recruited from the Sydney metropolitan area. Parents reported that children consumed an average of 6.8 (SD 3.4) different preparation methods for vegetables at home, including many mixed dishes. The number and type of preparations the child consumed depended on the vegetable type (p < .0001). Preparation method was associated with liking of carrot and potato (both p < .0001), and with consumption frequency of all vegetables (all p < .05). The most and least liked preparations were vegetable specific. Parents reported that vegetables in mixed dishes were generally well accepted by their children, and flavourings were added on average by 54%. The results also showed that a higher vegetable consumption was related to a higher liking, and exposure to more preparation methods. This study demonstrates the potential for further experimental research into preparation practices to increase vegetable acceptance and intake in children. A vegetable by vegetable approach is recommended, with potential cross-vegetable opportunities for flavour–flavour learning and flavour masking strategies including the use of mixed dishes.     

An itinerant sensory approach to investigate consumers' perception and acceptability at a food exhibition

In a food exhibition where several producers of the same product category are present at the same time, consumers usually have the opportunity to taste several free samples of the same product type, thus they can experience and compare the sensory characteristics of each and evaluate their liking for each sample tasted. This study assessed the potential of an itinerant sensory data collection in understanding the consumers' perception and acceptance of cheese during a multiple tasting experience at a food exhibition. Subjects tasted seven samples of Parmigiano Reggiano cheese aged for different times (24 and 36 months) at seven producer stands and recorded their evaluations using tablets, on which an application specifically developed for this study was installed. This evaluation situation was defined as “pseudo-natural,” in opposition to the “natural” and the “naturalistic” settings. The itinerant sensory session comprised a liking test, a rate-all-that-apply (RATA) test using a just about right (JAR) scale, a food pairing test, and a questionnaire. Consumers significantly (p < 0.05) discriminated the cheeses as a function of the aging time, describing with different attributes the 24 months (sweetness, fresh fruit, grass, yogurt, butter flavors, elasticity, and humidity) and the 36 months (saltiness, bitterness, sourness, spicy, aromatic herbs, cheese rind flavors, crumbliness, granularity, hardness, and hotness) aged products. The combined application of regression models, Penalty-Lift analysis, and decision tree models in investigating the relationships between liking and the RATA data, provided results revealing that the attributes elasticity, sweetness, humidity, fresh fruit, and butter were the main drivers of liking. Whereas, the attributes sourness, bitterness, and hardness were the main drivers of dislike. Therefore, even though no significant differences in terms of liking were observed among the tested cheeses, consumers preferred the attributes more frequently perceived in the least aged products. In conclusion, the presented itinerant sensory approach had provided meaningful information to understand the consumers' cheese perception and acceptability. In the future, it could advantageously be applied for studying food perception in other situations in which subjects naturally choose or consume several products while freely moving from one to another (e.g. self-service restaurant).     

Dynamic aspects of liking: post-prandial persistence of sensory specific satiety

The time dependence of the liking of foodstuffs was investigated in a study with 25 subjects, consisting of three parts: (1) on day one, a sensory specific satiety study, which was extended until 125 min after consumption; (2) on days two to seven, a repeated in home taste and evaluation study; (3) on day eight, a second sensory specific satiety study as in 1.In parts 1 and 3, subjects were asked to eat either cheese biscuits or pears in light syrup to satiety. The change in liking of both foodstuffs, after eating one of the two foodstuffs to satiety, was followed during 125 min. In part 2, the same subjects were asked to taste and evaluate each product at home, every day for six days.In the sensory specific satiety studies (parts 1 and 3) a significant decrease in liking was observed for the product eaten to satiety, as long as 125 min after consuming that product to satiety. For both products contrast effects were observed: the liking of the uneaten product increased after eating the other product to satiety, while the liking of the eaten product decreased. This contrast effect lasted longer after eating cheese biscuits to satiety, than after eating pears to satiety.In the in home taste and evaluation study, a significant and linear decrease in liking was observed for both products during six days. There was a significant effect (p < 0.05) of eating cheese biscuits to satiety in the sensory specific satiety study on day 1, on the liking ratings of the in home consumption study. No such effect was observed for the pears.The results indicate that sensory specific satiety is relatively strong for more than 2 h after consumption and can have effects on liking ratings for more than 24 h. These effects were different for the products tested. Based on these results, we suggest that combining eating a product to satiety and in home evaluation over several days, could possibly be useful as an accelerated method to predict changes in liking upon repeated consumption.     

The consumer acceptance of novel vegetable-enriched bread products as a potential vehicle to increase vegetable consumption

Currently UK fruit and vegetable intakes are below recommendations. Bread is a staple food consumed by approximately 95% of adults in western countries. In addition, bread provides an ideal matrix by which functionality can be delivered to the consumer in an accepted and convenient food. Therefore, enriching bread with vegetables may be an effective strategy to increase vegetable consumption. This study evaluated bread enriched with red beetroot, carrot with coriander, red pepper with tomato or white beetroot (40 g vegetable per 100 g) compared to white control bread (0 g vegetable) for consumer acceptance. Consumers (n = 120) rated their liking of the breads overall, as well as their liking of appearance, flavour and texture using nine-point hedonic scales. Product replacement and purchase intent of the breads were rated using five-point scales. The effect of providing consumers with health information about the breads was also evaluated. There were significant differences in overall liking (P < 0.0001), as well as liking of appearance (P < 0.0001), flavour (P = 0.0002) and texture (P = 0.04), between the breads. However, the significant differences resulted from the red beetroot bread which was significantly (P < 0.05) less liked compared to control bread. There were no significant differences in overall liking between any of the other vegetable-enriched breads compared with the control bread (no vegetable inclusion). The provision of health information about the breads did not increase consumer liking of the vegetable-enriched breads. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that vegetable-enriched bread appeared to be an acceptable strategy to increase vegetable intake, however, liking depended on vegetable type.     

Exploring the effects of genotypical and phenotypical variations in bitter taste sensitivity on perception,liking and intake of brassica vegetables in the UK

Brassicaceous vegetables (BV) have chemoprotective effects and yet consumption of BV in the UK is low. Previous studies suggest perception, liking and intake of BV are influenced by bitter taste sensitivity which this study further explores. Phenotypical taste sensitivity of 136 subjects was classified using propythiouracil (PROP) and sodium chloride and fungiform papillae density (FPD) was measured from tongue images. Polymorphisms of TAS2R38 and gustin (CA6) genes were analysed. Liking and bitterness of four raw vegetables (two BV (broccoli and white cabbage) and two non-BV (spinach and courgette)), as well as habitual consumption, were evaluated.There was a significant association between TAS2R38 genotype and PROP taster status (p < 0.0001) and between FPD and PROP taster status (p = 0.029). Individuals with greater sensitivity for PROP predominantly had TAS2R38 PAV/PAV genotype and greater FPD. BV were perceived as more bitter than non-BV (p < 0.0001) with PAV/PAV subjects perceiving significantly stronger bitter intensity. There was a significant difference in liking for the four vegetables (p = 0.002), and between consumers of different TAS2R38 genotype (p = 0.0024). Individuals with TAS2R38 AVI/AVI genotype liked BV more. Regarding intake, both PAV/PAV and AVI/AVI individuals consumed more total vegetables and BV than PAV/AVI. Although PROP nontasters tended to consume more vegetables and BV than the other two phenotype groups, liking and vegetable intake were not significantly affected by taste phenotype. Although there was not a significant effect of CA6 genotype on bitterness ratings, there was a significant interaction between CA6 and TAS2R38, and in addition CA6 genotype was significantly associated with BV intake. However, these effects require validation as the proportions of the population with the CA6 G/G genotype was extremely small (7%).Our results confirmed that bitter taste perception in vegetables was influenced by both genotype and phenotype of bitter taste sensitivity. Moreover, our findings demonstrated that neither genotype nor phenotype of taste sensitivity alone accurately predict vegetable liking and intake as demographic factors were found to have a substantial influence.     

Acquisition of liking for spinach products

This research investigated whether consumers acquire a liking for spinach through tasting it many times (repeated exposure) or in association with something which is better-liked (associative learning). The research focused on women who ate spinach infrequently or did not eat spinach at all, did not have a strong liking or disliking for spinach and were prepared to try the vegetable again. The experiment consisted of three phases; a pre-test, followed by a learning phase and finally a post-test. Two hundred and twenty-three consumers participated in a pre- and post-test evaluation of plain spinach at a central location. They were divided into five different groups for the learning phase, with approximately 40 consumers in each. A ‘control’ group of consumers was not given a product. The other consumers were given the same product (either peas, spinach type 1, spinach type 2 or a cream spinach recipe, containing cheese and spices) once a week for five weeks to prepare at home according to specified instructions and consume as an accompaniment to a hot meal. Acquisition of liking was found; repeated consumption of plain spinach did result in an increased liking for plain spinach overall (p = 0.02) and specifically for spinach dislikers (p < 0.05). At an overall level, flavour–flavour pairing effects were not demonstrated. However, consumers who initially disliked spinach showed an increased liking (p < 0.05) for spinach after having repeatedly eaten it in the learning phase as part of a recipe with cream, cheese and spices.     

Rejection thresholds (RjT) of sweet likers and dislikers

Sweetness is generally a desirable taste, however consumers can be grouped into sweet likers and dislikers according to optimally preferred sucrose concentrations. Understanding the levels of sweetness in products that are acceptable and unacceptable to both consumer groups is important to product development and for influencing dietary habits. The concentrations at which sucrose decreases liking (the rejection threshold; RjT) in liquid and semi-solid matrices were investigated in this study. Thirty six consumers rated their liking of 5 sucrose aqueous solutions; this identified 36% sweet likers (SL) whose liking ratings increased with increasing sucrose and 64% sweet dislikers (SD) whose liking ratings decreased above 6% (w/v) sucrose. We hypothesized that SL and SD would have different RjT for sucrose in products. This was tested by preparing 8 levels of sucrose in orange juice and orange jelly and presenting each against the lowest level in forced choice preference tests. In orange juice, as sucrose increased from 33 g/L to 75 g/L the proportion of people preferring the sweeter sample increased in both groups. However, at higher sucrose levels, the proportion of consumers preferring the sweet sample decreased. For SD, a RjT was reached at 380 g/L, whereas a significant RjT for SL was not reached. RjT in jelly were not reached as the sweetness in orange jelly was significantly lower than for orange juice (p < 0.001). Despite statistically significant differences in rated sweetness between SL and SD (p = 0.019), the extent of difference between the two groups was minor. The results implied that sweet liker status was not substantially related to differences in sweetness perception. Self-reported dietary intake of carbohydrate, sugars and sucrose were not significantly affected by sweet liker status. However the failure to find an effect may be due to the small sample size and future studies within a larger, more representative population sample are justifiable from the results of this study.     

Effect of branched-chain fatty acids, 3-methylindole and 4-methylphenol on consumer sensory scores of grilled lamb meat

Tenderness, flavour, overall liking and odour are important components of sheepmeat eating quality. Consumer assessment of these attributes has been made for carcasses from the Information Nucleus Flock (INF) of the Cooperative Research Centre for Sheep Industry Innovation. The concentrations of three branched chain fatty acids, 4-methyloctanoic (MOA), 4-ethyloctanoic (EOA) and 4-methylnonanoic acids (compounds related to ‘mutton flavour’ in cooked sheepmeat) and 3-methylindole and 4-methylphenol (compounds related to ‘pastoral’ flavour) were determined for 178 fat samples taken from INF carcasses. Statistical modelling revealed that both MOA and EOA impacted on the ‘Like Smell’ consumer sensory score of the cooked meat product (P < 0.05), with increasing concentration causing lower consumer acceptance of the product. None of the compounds though had an effect on the liking of flavour. Obviously, reducing the effect of MOA and EOA on the odour of grilled lamb will improve consumer acceptance of the cooked product but other factors affecting the eating quality also need to be considered.     

Differences in perception of sweet and savoury waffles between elderly and young subjects

Differences between two age groups in texture and flavour perception, in food appreciation and in texture and olfactory sensitivity were investigated. Three experiments were conducted: ratings of texture and flavour attributes, ratings of pleasantness of (1) sweet vanilla waffles, (2) savoury cheese waffles by elderly (n = 22, 60–85 years) and young (n = 16, 18–35 years) subjects, and (3) tests measuring texture sensitivity (young and elderly) and olfactory sensitivity (elderly only). The elderly differed from the young in their perception of texture and flavour, but the observed texture flavour interaction effect was not different for the elderly and young. A decrease in the importance of flavour in food appreciation was observed for the elderly in the savoury but not in the sweet waffles. The young were more efficient in chewing and they were better in oral letter recognition test. Among the elderly, olfactory sensitivity influenced flavour intensity ratings, whereas poor texture sensitivity was not related to perception of sensory attributes.The present study does not support the hypothesis that a different rate in the decline of the different senses with age will inevitably lead to a different integrated product concept.     

Genetic and environmental influences on liking and reported intakes of vegetables in Irish children

Variation in the bitterness of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) is partially explained by polymorphisms in the TAS2R38 gene. Based on their perception of bitterness from PROP, people may be classified into non-, medium and supertasters. PROP perception has previously been linked to liking for cruciferous vegetables in children in some studies, but only one study to date has examined TAS2R38 genotype and its relationship with vegetable intake in children. Children’s vegetable consumption generally does not meet the recommended guidelines, thus the present study aimed to examine the influence of oral sensory measures, genetic variation and social factors on vegetable liking and intake. Vegetable liking in 7–13 year old Irish children (n = 525) was measured on a 5-point liking scale, and dietary intakes were assessed via a 3-day diet history. Vegetable intakes were calculated and standardised per kg body weight. A subset of children (n = 485) were genotyped for SNPs in TAS2R38, (A49P, V262A, I296V), and fungiform papilla (FP) were counted. The bitterness of PROP and sweetness of sucrose were rated on a generalised labelled magnitude scale (gLMS). PROP and sucrose intensity were significantly correlated (R² = 0.33, p = 0.001), although neither sucrose intensity nor FP density differed across the TAS2R38 genotype groups. Supertasters were less likely than nontasters to have tried/tasted cruciferous vegetables p < 0.04). A small, positive correlation was seen in FP density and vegetable intake, but only in the AVI homozygous children, (R² = 0.17, p = 0.035). 174 Nutrient acceptable children reported an intake of one or more of the vegetables of interest in the 3-day period. Liking of cruciferous vegetables and reported intake were significantly correlated. In multiple regression analyses in this subsection of the cohort, socioeconomic status (SES) and gender were more important than PROP bitterness or TAS2R38 genotype in predicting intakes (approximately 15% of liking and 67% of intake was explained by these models). Overall, neither PROP taster status nor TAS2R38 genotype alone had significant impact on bitter vegetable liking or intake. Further research into FP density and vegetable liking and intake may be warranted.     

An exploratory study of sensory attributes and consumer traits underlying liking for and perceptions of freshness for ready to eat mixed salad leaves in Italy

The role of sensory attributes and storage time information in driving liking for and perceptions of freshness for ready to eat vegetables was investigated in mixed salad leaves for different storage times (0, 3, 7 and 9 days). A modified Repertory Grid Method was used to identify ten attributes describing consumer's perception of sensory properties over storage. Eighty-one consumers rated the overall liking, the intensity of sensory attributes and the level of freshness in salad samples at different storage times. Freshness was evaluated in blind and informed conditions. Furthermore, consumers filled in a Food Choice Questionnaire and rated the importance of six attributes known to be important for ready to eat salad choice. The relationships between sensory properties significantly affected by storage time, perceived freshness and liking showed that both liking and freshness were positively related to appearance attributes (green colour, salad assortment and leaf turgidity). The perceived level of freshness, expiry date and appearance were confirmed as the most important attributes for ready to eat salad choice. Two clusters of consumers (Cl1: n = 49; Cl2: n = 32) were identified based on the mean liking rating. The positive effects on health and mood as well as ethical concerns drove food choice more in Cl1 than in Cl2 subjects. No significant effect of storage time was found on liking ratings expressed by Cl1 in blind conditions, while a significant decrease of perceived freshness was observed. On the other hand, results from Cl2 in blind conditions showed a significant decrease of both liking and perceived freshness. Information about storage time significantly affected freshness ratings in Cl1 but did not influence those from Cl2.Results suggest that collection of sensory data, affective responses and information about the background of subjects is needed to fully investigate the perceptions of freshness from a consumer perspective.     

Aroma–taste interactions between a model cheese aroma and five basic tastes in solution

The flavour perception of cheese results from complex sensory interactions between tastes and aromas. Using a model cheese solution, this study investigated perceived interactions between each of five basic tastes and a cheese aroma mixture containing ten volatile compounds commonly found in cheese. The five tastes – sucrose (sweetness), sodium chloride (NaCl) (saltiness), monosodium glutamate (MSG) (umami), lactic acid (sourness), and caffeine (bitterness) – were individually mixed with cheese aroma in water using a 5 taste level (0.2 log series) by 3 aroma level (0.5 log series) design. Aroma controls with no added taste were also included. This resulted in 18 samples for each single taste–aroma combination. An additional 18 samples were produced using a mixture of all 5 tastes with the 3 aroma levels. A panel of trained assessors (n = 10) evaluated cheese flavour intensity and taste intensity using 100 point line scales. Evaluation was carried out in duplicate, with samples grouped by taste type; 1 evaluation session per taste per replicate. Within type, order of presentation was balanced, and taste type order was randomised between replicates. Cheese flavour intensity was enhanced by sucrose and NaCl, while being suppressed by lactic acid. NaCl enhanced cheese flavour intensity the most at high aroma level, while lactic acid suppressed the most at low aroma level. When MSG level was increased, cheese flavour intensity was enhanced at both low and medium aroma levels, but was suppressed at the high aroma level. The greatest enhancement of cheese flavour intensity was found with the mixture of 5 tastes. Aroma significantly enhanced umami and bitterness, but did not enhance sweetness, saltiness, or sourness. This study showed that the perceived interaction between taste and cheese aroma depended on taste type and on the concentration levels of both taste type and aroma. The mixture of tastes was more effective at enhancing cheese flavour intensity than single tastes. This study provides knowledge that will underpin further study of taste–aroma interactions in a model cheese that aims to optimise cheese flavour intensity and character.