Evaluation of capital cost data: Part 9: Liquid waste disposal with emphasis on chemical treatment

Capital cost correlations are given for chemical feed systems, chlorination, ozone disinfection, ultraviolet light disinfection, ion exchange, flocculation, and carbon adsorption. Most of the correlations are accurate to ± 30%, expressed in Canadian dollars and adjusted to a Marshall and Swift value of 1000. Details as to what components are included in the cost are given. Data are given for the labour and material costs to create a working process module. To put the current data into perspective, several hundred sources of cost data were analyzed. The major correlations are compared, on a consistent basis, with current data.     

Evaluation of capital cost data. part 7: Liquid waste disposal with emphasis on physical treatment

Capital cost correlations are given for oil-water separators, equalization basins, primary clarifiers, clarifiers and clarifier mechanisms, reverse osmosis unit, ultrafiltration units, gravity filters and miroscreens. Data are included for raw sewage, intermediate and recirculation pumping stations and for preliminary treatment (or bar screens, grit removal, overflow and bypass chamber and Parshall flume), for grit removal, comminution and gas stripping. The correlations are accurate to ± 30%, expressed in Canadian dollars and adjusted to a Marshall and Swift value of 1000. Details as to what components are included in the cost are given. Data are given for the labour and material costs to create a working process module. For inflation indices, a critique of the Engineering News Record, EPA small city, Marshall and Swift, Chemical Engineering and Southam inflation indices suggested that the Marshall and Swift index is most appropriate for the construction and process equipment studied here. Concerning the currency exchange, for the equipment and processes in this study, equipment costs the same whether expressed directly in US or Canadian dollars. To put the current data into perspective, several hundred sources of cost data were analyzed. The major correlations are compared, on a consistent basis, with current data.     

A microbial fuel cell–electro‐oxidation system for coking wastewater treatment and bioelectricity generation

BACKGROUND: Coking wastewater is generated from coal coking, coal gas purification, and by‐product recovery processes. Increased interest is being focused on finding more sustainably effective and energy‐efficient methods for treating this wastewater. In this work, a system termed microbial fuel cell‐electro‐oxidation (MFC‐EO) was developed for simultaneous coking wastewater treatment and bioelectricity generation. RESULTS: Raw coking wastewater was first treated using MFCs. Power production, removal of total chemical oxygen demand (TCOD) and total nitrogen (TN) reached 538 ± 9 mW m^?2, 52 ± 1% and 50 ± 1%, respectively. Wastewater strength and phosphate addition were evaluated for the enhancement of power production and treatment efficiency. At the EO stage, the effect of current density and chloride concentration on pollutant abatement, current efficiency (CE_EO) and energy consumption (EC_EO) were investigated. The overall removal of TCOD and TN was 82 ± 1% and 68 ± 1%, respectively using the MFC‐EO process. CONCLUSIONS: A MFC‐EO process was developed for the first time for simultaneous bioelectricity generation and coking wastewater treatment. This study attempted to combine MFCs with a conventional EO process for coking wastewater treatment. Further strategies need to be investigated to optimize reactor configuration using low‐cost and highly efficient electrode materials. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Evaluation of capital cost data: Gas moving equipment

Capital cost correlations are given for gas moving equipment. Correlations available in the literature and current data are compared on a consistent basis. Forty-three graphs show the relative magnitude of the different correlations and the recommended correlation for each type of equipment is summarized in a table. Some data on the costs of installing gas moving equipment are given.     

Evaluation of capital cost data: Heat exchangers

Capital cost correlations are given for heat exchangers and furnaces. Correlations available in the literature and current data are compared on a consistent basis. Forty-six graphs show the relative magnitude of the different correlations and the recommended correlation for each type of equipment is summarized in a table. Some data on the costs of installing heat exchange equipment are given.     

Evaluation of capital cost data: Heat exchangers

Capital cost correlations are given for heat exchangers and furnaces. Correlations available in the literature and current data are compared on a consistent basis. Forty-six graphs show the relative magnitude of the different correlations and the recommended correlation for each type of equipment is summarized in a table. Some data on the costs of installing heat exchange equipment are given.     

Evaluation of capital cost data: Liquid moving equipment

Capital cost correlations are given for liquid moving equipment. Correlations available in the literature and current data from suppliers, contractors, consultants and industry are compared on a consistent basis. Forty-three graphs show the relative magnitudes of the different correlations, and the recommended correlation for each type of equipment is given. Some factors are given on the costs of installing liquid moving equipment.     

Evaluation of capital cost data: Offsite utilities (Supply)

Capital cost correlations are given for units supplying utilities: steam, refrigeration, cooling and treated water, electricity. Correlations available in the literature and current data are compared on a consistent basis. Thirty-two graphs show the relative magnitudes of the different correlations, and the recommended correlation for each type of equipment is given. Some factors are given on the costs of installing the package units.     

Experimental heat capacities of carbon dioxide-methane mixtures at elevated pressures

The heat exchanger method of determining the ratio of heat capacity at a pressure to the heat capacity at a low pressure was used to obtain data on two binary mixtures of methane and carbon dioxide containing 14.49 and 42.30 mole % methane. The data were obtained at pressures up to 2,250 psi in the temperature range of ambient to 150°C and are expected to be accurate within ± 0.5 % in the regions removed from the pressure maxima and within ± 1 % in regions close to the maxima. Heat capacities of the two binary mixtures were calculated using the BWR equation of state, the generalized correlations of Curl and Pitzer and Yen and Alexander, and the method of Orentlicher and Prausnitz. The calculated values were compared with the experimental values.     

Use of the axial dispersion model to describe the O3 and O3 /H2O2 advanced oxidation of alachlor in water

Experiments on alachlor degradation by ozonation alone and combined with hydrogen peroxide using different surface waters have been conducted in a reactor bubble column and a kinetic model of the advanced oxidation process has been proposed. Variables studied were the nature of the surface water (four surface waters were treated), pH (3.5–9.7) and hydrogen peroxide to ozone mass ratio at the column inlet (0.1–1.85 g g^?1). Data on residence time distribution, rate constants and the absorption kinetic regime were considered to prepare the kinetic model, which was also based on the axial dispersion model of non‐ideal flow. The model gives good predictions of alachlor and hydrogen peroxide conversions and the fraction of dissolved ozone (deviations were lower than ±15%) although it fails, in some cases, to yield accurate estimates of the observed experimental trends of concentrations in water at the reactor column outlet. The calculated results were close to those obtained from the more classical N well‐mixed tanks‐in‐series model (deviations with this model were lower than ±20%). It is concluded that quantitative deviations from experimental observations were likely due to the lack of rate data on ozone reactions with organic matter present in the surface waters investigated. © 2002 Society of Chemical Industry     

Evaluation of capital cost data: Drives

Capital cost correlations are given for electric and gasoline motors, steam, gas and combustion-gas driven turbines, power transmission units and power converters. Correlations available in the literature and current data are compared on a consistent basis. Thirty-eight graphs show the relative magnitudes of the different correlations and the recommended correlation for each type of equipment is summarized in a table.     

Viscosity of nitrogen gas at low temperatures up to high pressures: A new appraisal

The absolute viscosity of nitrogen gas was determined experimentally for the pressure and temperature range 1 to 150 atmospheres and 90°K to 400°K respectively. The maximum error in the data presented is believed to be better than ±1.5%, and ±1% for the high and low pressure data respectively. Two general correlating equations, one for atmospheric pressure and the other for all the available high pressure data, (i.e. densities up to 0.4 g/cc or 1.5 ρ (critical)) are presented, together with a table of recommended smoothed data, which are felt to be accurate to ±1.5% or better. Values for the low velocity collision diameter σ and maximum energy attraction functions are also presented for the low pressure data.     

微气泡强化磷酸介质中Fe2+高效氧化研究

为实现酸性介质中Fe2+的高效分离，工业中常采用双氧水氧化法将Fe2+转化为溶解度更低的Fe3+而实现铁的析出，该方法双氧水利用率低，经济性差，亟待开发酸性介质中新型的Fe2+低成本高效氧化法。基于微气泡在酸性介质中可爆裂生成活性氧原理，本工作开发了微气泡强化氧化Fe2+技术，研究了曝气头尺寸、反应温度、酸浓度等对微气泡强化氧化Fe2+及羟基自由基生成的影响，确定了反应的最佳条件为90℃、30wt% H3PO4、0.22 μm孔径曝气头，在上述条件下，30 min Fe2+氧化率可达约99%，与现行H2O2氧化效果相当，大大降低工艺经济成本。同时，本工作对微气泡强化Fe2+氧化的机理进行了研究，确定了微气泡爆裂生成的主要活性氧为羟基自由基，并研究了曝气头尺寸、反应温度、酸浓度等对羟基自由基生成的影响，获得了酸性介质中羟基自由基生成的调控规律。     

Evaluation of capital cost data: Onsite utilities (industrial gases)

Capital cost correlations with capacity or with total investment are given for units supplying onsite industrial gases: compressed air, oxygen, nitrogen, inert atmospheres, high purity hydrogen, synthesis gas, ozone and acetylene. Costs are also given for units to remove carbon dioxide and water from gas streams. Correlations available in the literature and current data are compared. Graphs show the relative magnitudes of the different correlations, and the recommended correlation for each type of equipment is given. Some unit usages are given for producing some of the gases.     

Prediction of flow patterns in horizontal two-phase pipe flow

A new concept of a sequence of plots is used for the separation of flow regimes in two-phase flow. The empirical correlations themselves are based on extensive tabulations of flow-type data from the AGA-API Data Bank. Provided these data and the tabulations are accurate, the accuracy of the proposed method is better than 5%. The accuracy for any separation can easily be obtained from the information given. The probability of being able to separate flow types by the various correlations was determined and used to select the best correlations. In actual use, there will be times when a complete separation cannot be made. However, one will know this and be able to say that the flow is one of two or, rarely, more types.     

Accurate measurement of creep of nylon-6,6 at constant temperature and humidity

This paper describes a purpose-built environmental chamber housing three creep machines for accurate measurements of creep in a hygroscopic polymer. The environmental chamber controls the temperature to within ±0.1°C and the relative humidity to within ±1% r.h. or better. The creep machines are sufficiently accurate to limit the error in the measured modulus to ±0.4% at the 0.1% strain level. Also described are new designs of lateral extensometers and of a simplified zero-load control machine based on similar principles to those of the creep machines, but which can also be adapted for accurate creep tests on very small test pieces using loads of as little as 1 N. Creep results are presented of nylon-6,6 at several constant stresses and relative humidities at 23.5°C, each test lasting for six weeks. Evidence is given, in the form of 24 h creep curves, of an aging phenomenon in nylon-6,6: a progressive increase in stiffness with storage time at the test condition following humidification at 90% r.h.     

Aerated membrane‐attached biofilm reactor as an effective tool for partial nitrification in pretreatment of anaerobic ammonium oxidation (ANAMMOX) process

BACKGROUND: A laboratory‐scale membrane aeration bioreactor was employed to treat synthetic ammonium‐rich wastewater to yield an appropriate NH₄⁺/NO₂^? ratio for anaerobic ammonium oxidation (ANAMMOX). The main objectives of this study were to steadily obtain 50% partial nitrification in batch experiments, to evaluate the effects of aeration and to identify the dominant bacterial community of the biofilm for partial nitrification. RESULTS: Some of the ammonium in the synthetic wastewater was partially nitrified. A suitable NH₄⁺/NO₂^? ratio (1:1 to 1:1.3) for the ANAMMOX process was obtained after 24 h. The dissolved oxygen (DO) level in the treated water was very low (below 0.6 mg L^?1). Both the appropriate NH₄⁺/NO₂^? ratio and the low DO level make this bioreactor an ideal pretreatment system for ANAMMOX. In addition, a molecular biotechnology method was applied to prove that the ammonia‐oxidizing bacteria dominated the biofilm. CONCLUSION: This system achieved surprising cost savings in the aeration process compared with traditional aeration systems. The combination of this system with the subsequent ANAMMOX process has great potential as a favorable short‐cut in the treatment of ammonium‐rich wastewater. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

尼龙织物染色废水处理工艺改造实践

根据尼龙织物染色废水的特点,将原有“混凝-延时曝气-气浮”工艺改造为“厌氧-水解酸化-接触氧化-混凝”工艺。在大幅减少系统污泥排放,水处理成本得到降低的同时,大大改善了出水水质：COD、SS、色度的去除率分别提高了18．9％、10．7％、12.3％。     

Treatment of dyehouse waste‐water by supercritical water oxidation: a case study

BACKGROUND: Supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) of dyehouse waste‐water containing several organic pollutants has been studied. The removal of these organic components with unknown proportions is considered in terms of total organic carbon concentration (TOC), with an initial value of 856.9 mg L^?1. Oxidation reactions were performed using diluted hydrogen peroxide. The reaction conditions ranged between temperatures of 400–600 °C and residence times of 8–16 s under 25 MPa of pressure. RESULTS: TOC removal efficiencies using SCWO and hydrothermal decomposition were between 92.0 and 100% and 6.6 and 93.8%, respectively. An overall reaction rate, which consists of hydrothermal decomposition and the oxidation reaction, was determined for the hydrothermal decomposition of the waste‐water with an activation energy of 104.12 ( ± 2.6) kJ mol^?1 and a pre‐exponential factor of 1.59( ± 0.5) × 10⁵ s^?1. The oxidation reaction rate orders for the TOC and the oxidant were 1.169 ( ± 0.3) and 0.075 ( ± 0.04) with activation energies of 18.194 ( ± 1.09) kJ mol^?1, and pre‐exponential factor of 5.181 ( ± 1.3) L^0.244 mmol^?0.244 s^?1 at the 95% confidence level. CONCLUSION: Results demonstrate that the SCWO process decreased TOC content by up to 100% in residence times between 8 and 16 s under various reaction conditions. The treatment efficiency increased remarkably with increasing temperature and the presence of excess oxygen in the reaction medium. Color of the waste‐water was removed completely at temperatures of 450 °C and above. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Viscosities of vegetable oils and fatty acids

Data for viscosity as a function of temperature from 24 to 110°C (75 to 230°F) have been measured for a number of vegetable oils (crambe, rapeseed, corn, soybean, milk-weed, coconut, lesquerella) and eight fatty acids in the range from C₉ to C₂₂. The viscosity measurements were performed according to ASTM test methods D 445 and D 446. Several correlations were fitted to the experimental data. Correlation constants for the best fit are presented. The range of temperature in which the correlations are valid is from 24°C (75°F), or the melting point of the substance, to 110°C (230°F). The correlation constants are valuable for designing or evaluating such chemical process equipment as heat exchangers, reactors, distillation columns, mixing vessels and process piping.