System operation with high wind penetration

The European Union has committed to reduce the equivalent carbon dioxide emissions by 8% of the 1990 level by the end of 2012. To meet the objective, the member states have financially encouraged the development of renewable energy especially wind power. Locally, this results in some of the highest wind power penetration levels in the world. This paper discusses the transmission challenges of Denmark, Spain, Germany and Ireland. With increasing wind capacity, the transmission system operators (TSOs) became concerned about the impact of high levels of wind generation on system stability. The integration of wind power has been hampered by the lack of suitable dynamic models for use in transient stability programs. The number of different turbine technologies used increased the complexity of the modeling problems.     

The role of hydrogen in high wind energy penetration electricity systems: The Irish case

The deployment of wind energy is constrained by wind uncontrollability, which poses operational problems on the electricity supply system at high penetration levels, lessening the value of wind-generated electricity to a significant extent. This paper studies the viability of hydrogen production via electrolysis using wind power that cannot be easily accommodated on the system. The potential benefits of hydrogen and its role in enabling a large penetration of wind energy are assessed, within the context of the enormous wind energy resource in Ireland. The exploitation of this wind resource may in the future give rise to significant amounts of surplus wind electricity, which could be used to produce hydrogen, the zero-emissions fuel that many experts believe will eventually replace fossil fuels in the transport sector. In this paper the operation of a wind powered hydrogen production system is simulated and optimised. The results reveal that, even allowing for significant cost-reductions in electrolyser and associated balance-of-plant equipment, low average surplus wind electricity cost and a high hydrogen market price are also necessary to achieve the economic viability of the technology. These conditions would facilitate the installation of electrolysis units of sufficient capacity to allow an appreciable increase in installed wind power in Ireland. The simulation model was also used to determine the CO₂ abatement potential associated with the wind energy/hydrogen production.     

Performance of wholesale electricity markets with high wind penetration

This paper examines the impact of progressively deeper levels of wind generation and/or abatement on the performance of a wholesale market and its incumbent thermal generators with non-convex unit commitment constraints. Comparison is made to the result that marginal cost pricing should induce investors to build the least-cost capacity mix, since it is not clear that this will hold in renewable-rich systems.It is first found that unit commitment and forecast uncertainty do not cause significant departure from this result when the generator fleet is optimal. ‘Optimality' in this sense is determined in a capacity expansion problem that does not feature unit commitment, and which allows thermal generators to be built or retired as greater renewable generation or abatement is mandated. In contrast, the wholesale market with no retirement of thermal generation experiences progressively greater disparity between total system prices and costs, and lower returns to generators, simply due to over-capacity rather than any form of variability-related market failure. A carbon price is observed to be far superior to a renewable portfolio standard when the existing set of thermal generators do not retire, but this difference is less stark when the generation mix is optimal. The implications of these results for market design and system planning are then discussed.     

Pumped storage in systems with very high wind penetration

This paper examines the operation of the Irish power system with very high levels of wind energy, with and without pumped storage. A unit commitment model which accounts for the uncertainty in wind power is used. It is shown that as wind penetration increases, the optimal operation of storage depends on wind output as well as load. The main benefit from storage is shown to be a decrease in wind curtailment. The economics of the system are examined to find the level at which storage justifies its capital costs and inefficiencies. It is shown that the uncertainty of wind makes the option of storage more attractive. The size of the energy store has an impact on results. At lower levels of installed wind (up to approximately 50% of energy from wind in Ireland), the reduction in curtailment is insufficient to justify building storage. At greater levels of wind, storage reduces curtailment sufficiently to justify the additional capital costs. It can be seen that if storage replaces OCGTs in the plant mix instead of CCGTs, then the level at which it justifies itself is lower. Storage increases the level of carbon emissions at wind penetration below 60%.     

The wind potential impact on the maximum wind energy penetration in autonomous electrical grids

According to long-term wind speed measurements the Aegean Archipelago possesses excellent wind potential, hence properly designed wind energy applications can substantially contribute to fulfill the energy requirements of the island societies. On top of this, in most islands the electricity production cost is extremely high, while significant insufficient power supply problems are often encountered, especially during the summer. Unfortunately, the stochastic behaviour of the wind and the important fluctuations of daily and seasonal electricity load pose a strict penetration limit for the contribution of wind energy in the corresponding load demand. The application of this limit is necessary in order to avoid hazardous electricity grid fluctuations and to protect the existing thermal power units from operating near or below their technical minima. In this context, the main target of the proposed study is to present an integrated methodology able to estimate the maximum wind energy penetration in autonomous electrical grids on the basis of the available wind potential existing in the Aegean Archipelago area. For this purpose a large number of representative wind potential types have been investigated and interesting conclusions have been derived.     

Determining optimal electricity technology mix with high level of wind power penetration

Notwithstanding its variability and limited controllability, wind power is expected to contribute strongly to electricity generation from renewable energy sources in the coming decades. Treating wind power as non-dispatchable by subtracting its output from the original load profile, results in a net load profile, which must be covered by conventional power generation. The screening curve methodology is a first approximation to find the optimal generation technology mix, based on relative cost levels. However, increased variability of the net load profile, due to wind power generation, strongly influences system operation. Therefore a static linear programming investment model is developed to determine the optimal technology mix. This alternative methodology shows a reduced capacity of inflexible generation after including operational constraints to properly account for net load variability. In order to illustrate this methodology, an example is set up, showing the sensitivity with respect to ramp rates of conventional generation, transmission interconnection and energy storage. The comparison of those different sources of system flexibility suggests that energy storage facilities better facilitate the integration of wind power generation.     

Power system planning with high renewable energy penetration considering demand response

Electric system planning with high variable renewable energy (VRE) penetration levels has attracted great attention world-wide. Electricity production of VRE highly depends on the weather conditions and thus involves large variability, uncertainty, and low-capacity credit. This gives rise to significant challenges for power system planning. Currently, many solutions are proposed to address the issue of operational flexibility inadequacy, including flexibility retrofit of thermal units, inter-regional transmission, electricity energy storage, and demand response (DR). Evidently, the performance and the cost of various solutions are different. It is relevant to explore the optimal portfolio to satisfy the flexibility requirement for a renewable dominated system and the role of each flexibility source. In this study, the value of diverse DR flexibilities was examined and a stochastic investment planning model considering DR is proposed. Two types of DRs, namely interrupted DR and transferred DR, were modeled. Chronological load and renewable generation curves with 8760 hours within a whole year were reduced to 4 weekly scenarios to accelerate the optimization. Clustered unit commitment constraints for accommodating variability of renewables were incorporated. Case studies based on IEEE RTS-96 system are reported to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method and the DR potential to avoid energy storage investment.     

Key factors affecting long-term penetration of global onshore wind energy integrating top-down and bottom-up approaches

We quantified key factors affecting the penetration of global onshore wind energy by 2050. We analyzed a large set of scenarios by combining a wind resource model and a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. Five factors, including onshore wind resource potential, investment cost, balancing cost, transmission cost and climate change mitigation policy, were considered to generate 96 scenarios and regression analysis was used to assess relevance among the factors. We found that the strongest factors were resource potential and climate target, followed by wind power technology investment cost. Other factors, such as balancing and transmission costs, had relatively smaller impacts. World total onshore wind power in 2050 increases by 13.2 and 15.5 (41% and 49% of 2005 total power generation, respectively) EJ/year if wind potential rises from low to medium and high levels, respectively. Furthermore, 5.9, 17.8, and 24.3 EJ/year of additional wind power could be generated under climate targets of 650, 550 and 450 ppm CO_2-eq, respectively. Moreover, reducing wind power technology investment cost would increase global wind power by another 9.2 EJ/year. The methodology can be extended to assess other mitigation technologies if the related data is available.     

Demand side resource operation on the Irish power system with high wind power penetration

The utilisation of demand side resources is set to increase over the coming years with the advent of advanced metering infrastructure, home area networks and the promotion of increased energy efficiency. Demand side resources are proposed as an energy resource that, through aggregation, can form part of the power system plant mix and contribute to the flexible operation of a power system. A model for demand side resources is proposed here that captures its key characteristics for commitment and dispatch calculations. The model is tested on the all island Irish power system, and the operation of the model is simulated over one year in both a stochastic and deterministic mode, to illustrate the impact of wind and load uncertainty. The results illustrate that demand side resources can contribute to the efficient, flexible operation of systems with high penetrations of wind by replacing some of the functions of conventional peaking plant. Demand side resources are also shown to be capable of improving the reliability of the system, with reserve capability identified as a key requirement in this respect.     

考虑风速相关性的风电接入能力分析

同一地区的风电场一般建立在相互接近的地理位置上,因此其风速往往呈现出一定的相关性。采用Copula函数建立多风电场的风速相关性模型,继而生成具有相关性的风速分布样本空间。考虑风速的随机性与相关性,应用机会约束规划理论,在满足系统安全可靠运行的前提下,以系统可接入的风电机组装机容量最大化作为优化目标,建立了计算风电穿透功率极限的概率最优潮流模型,并采用一种基于随机模拟技术的粒子群优化算法进行求解。以IEEE30节点测试系统为算例,分析风速相关性、风电场接入点和机会约束置信水平对风电接入能力的影响,结果验证了所提模型与算法的合理性与可行性。     

风、光高渗透率电网中考虑频率稳定的可再生能源承载力研究

风电、光伏系统的弱惯量、无惯量特性以及在最大功率跟踪运行的特点影响电网频率的稳定。文章建立了包含常规发电机组和可再生能源发电机组的电网频率响应综合模型;提出了一种考虑频率稳定约束的可再生能源承载力评估方法;在Matlab/Simulink中对所建模型进行仿真,得出电网在不同可再生能源渗透率下的频率响应指标。算例分析表明,文章提出的方法能够快速准确地获得电网可再生能源承载力。     

Modelling the existing Irish energy-system to identify future energy costs and the maximum wind penetration feasible

In this study a model of the Irish energy-system was developed using EnergyPLAN based on the year 2007, which was then used for three investigations. The first compares the model results with actual values from 2007 to validate its accuracy. The second illustrates the exposure of the existing Irish energy-system to future energy costs by considering future fuel prices, CO₂ prices, and different interest rates. The final investigation identifies the maximum wind penetration feasible on the 2007 Irish energy-system from a technical and economic perspective, as wind is the most promising fluctuating renewable resource available in Ireland. It is concluded that the reference model simulates the Irish energy-system accurately, the annual fuel costs for Ireland's energy could increase by approximately 58% from 2007 to 2020 if a business-as-usual scenario is followed, and the optimum wind penetration for the existing Irish energy-system is approximately 30% from both a technical and economic perspective based on 2020 energy prices. Future studies will use the model developed in this study to show that higher wind penetrations can be achieved if the existing energy-system is modified correctly. Finally, these results are not only applicable to Ireland, but also represent the issues facing many other countries.     

Exploring the impact on cost and electricity production of high penetration levels of intermittent electricity in OECD Europe and the USA,results for wind energy

In this study we explore for the USA and OECD Europe (OECD Europe includes the countries that participate in the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development, among which Western Europe, USA and Japan) dynamic changes in electricity production, cost and CO₂ emissions when intermittent electricity sources are used with increasing penetration levels. The methodology developed can be applied for both solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy. Here the focus of the results is on penetration of wind electricity in the electricity system as simulated in a long-term model experiment in which the electricity demand is kept constant over time. All important parameter are included in a sensitivity analysis. With increasing penetration levels the cost reduction of wind electricity caused by upscaling and technological learning is counteracted by the cost increase due to (1) the need for additional back-up capacity, (2) the need to generate wind electricity at less favourable sites, and (3) discarded wind electricity because of supply–demand mismatch. This occurs after about 20% wind electricity production as percentage of current electricity production. At this level about 500 (OECD Europe) and 750 (USA) TWh yr⁻¹ wind electricity is absorbed in the system with the electricity demand of the year 2000. Wind electricity is found to be discarded when the production is about 55 (USA) to 10 times (OECD Europe) the present electricity produced from wind power. Beyond 30% of present electricity production, cost increases most significantly because of discarded wind electricity, excluding storage. In both regions the use of wind electricity would mainly avoid use of natural gas. The CO₂ emissions abatement costs range from 14 (OECD Europe) to 33 (USA) $ per ton CO₂ differ in both regions due to a faster wind electricity cost increase in OECD Europe.     

Ramping ancillary service for cost-based electricity markets with high penetration of variable renewable energy

System operators and electricity market stakeholders are facing new challenges related to increasing variability in both generation and demand. Rising generation levels of variable renewable energy (VRE) sources cause fluctuations in net loads that need to be met in real time by the rest of the system resources. While in some bid-based markets ancillary services have been proposed to procure ramping in an economic and efficient way, cost-based markets are struggling to define products and mechanisms that can accommodate to their rules, so as to incentivize and properly remunerate their procurement. In this paper we conceptualize a ramping ancillary service (RAS) for cost-based electricity markets with high penetration of VRE. The proposed RAS scheme is evaluated through simulations of the Chilean electric system. Numerical results show that it can be implemented in cost-based markets with positive technical and economic results, and that it may be a suitable solution to alleviate net load changes caused by high penetration of VRE.     

Assessing the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions from solar PV and wind energy: A critical meta-survey

This paper critically screens 153 lifecycle studies covering a broad range of wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation technologies to identify 41 of the most relevant, recent, rigorous, original, and complete assessments so that the dynamics of their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions profiles can be determined. When viewed in a holistic manner, including initial materials extraction, manufacturing, use and disposal/decommissioning, these 41 studies show that both wind and solar systems are directly tied to and responsible for GHG emissions. They are thus not actually emissions free technologies. Moreover, by spotlighting the lifecycle stages and physical characteristics of these technologies that are most responsible for emissions, improvements can be made to lower their carbon footprint. As such, through in-depth examination of the results of these studies and the variations therein, this article uncovers best practices in wind and solar design and deployment that can better inform climate change mitigation efforts in the electricity sector.     

Offshore wind energy prospects

In last two years offshore wind energy is becoming a focal point of national and non national organizations particularly after the limitations of fossil fuel consumption, adopted by many developed countries after Kyoto conference at the end of 1997 on global climate change. North Europe is particularly interested in offshore for the limited land areas still available, due to the intensive use of its territory and its today high wind capacity. Really the total wind capacity in Europe could increase from the 1997 value of 4450 MW up to 40 000 MW within 2010, according the White Paper 1997 of the European Commission; a significant percentage (25%) could be sited offshore up to 10 000 MW, because of close saturation of the land sites at that time. World wind capacity could increase from the 1997 value of 7200 MW up to 60 000 MW within 2010 with a good percentage (20%) offshore 12 000 MW. In last seven years wind capacity is shallow waters of coastal areas has reached 34 MW. Five wind farms are functioning in the internal seas of Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden; however such siting is mostly to be considered as semi-offshore condition. Wind farms in real offshore sites, open seas with waves and water depth over 10 m, are now proposed in North Sea at 10–20 km off the coasts of Netherland, Denmark using large size wind turbine (1–2 MW). In 1997 an offshore proposal was supported in Netherland by Greenpeace after the OWEMES '97 seminar, held in Italy on offshore wind in the spring 1997. A review is presented in the paper of the European offshore wind programs with trends in technology, economics and siting effects.     

趣谈风能利用

一帆风顺、风调雨顺、风和日丽、狂风暴雨、风雨同舟、微风荡漾……人们每天都在谈论风。风是我们最常见的自然现象之一。那么,风是怎样产生的呢?太阳和风