Simple formulas for the energy loss of ultrarelativistic muons by direct pair production

Simple formulas for direct pair production are derived from the general equation for deeply inelastic lepton scattering. Applications to energy loss by ultrarelativistic muons are discussed. For muons above the critical energy, E_c^μ 200 GeV, where the radiative effects of direct pair production and bremsstrahlung are dominant, the expressions for energy losses are considerably simplified when quoted in terms of the fractional energy loss per radiation length. The differential probability for direct pair production in a thickness x of material of radiation length X₀ for an incident lepton of energy E, mass M, can be expressed as

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where ν is the energy of the produced pair, υ is the fractional energy loss, υ = ν/E, m_e is the electron mass and the variable z is defined by

For indicent muons, this simple expression agrees very well with the exact calculation to within 30% over the entire range of υ, for E 1 TeV. At higher energies complete screening occurs, and the agreement is further improved, to better than 15% (except for the range 0.005 ≤ υ ≤ 0.01 where it is 25%). The integral of this expression gives the energy loss due to direct pair production by muons (complete screening) which is accurate to 10%:

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Initial stages of growth of GaN over (0001) Al2O3 substrate using MBE: a crystallographic analysis of the defects

An AlN buffer layer grown on (0001) sapphire substrate by molecular beam epitaxy has been studied. It is found to be made of small grains having a common [0001] axis parallel to that of the substrate. Some grains are rotated around this axis and the angle rotation can reach 20° leading to a new epitaxial relationship (0001)_sap//(0001)_AlN and [11

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0]_sap//[21

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0]_AlN. A model for the atomic structure of one of these grain boundaries is proposed using high resolution electron microscopy and extensive image simulation.     

GaN thin films deposited by pulsed laser ablation in nitrogen and ammonia reactive atmospheres

Well-oriented, crystalline GaN films were grown on (11

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0) sapphire substrates in reactive atmospheres of N₂ and NH₃ by pulsed laser deposition. GaN targets were ablated at 2.8 J cm⁻² and the substrate temperature was varied from 500 to 700°C. The background gas pressure was varied from 0.04 to 0.3 mbar. All the films had a wurtzite structure. The crystal quality and preferential orientation depended on the substrate temperature, laser fluence and the presence of the nitriding atmosphere. For both N₂ and NH₃, the most resistive films were preferentially orientated in the [000l] direction. For 700°C the film resistivity was found to increase from 10⁻³ Ω cm when deposited in NH₃ to 10² Ω cm when deposited in N₂. The band-gap, obtained from optical transmission measurements shifted from 3.1 to 3.4 eV. Violet photoluminescence was found in all samples and was centered at 3.2 eV with a full width at half maximum of 0.2 eV. A broad peak in the yellow, centered at 2.1 eV, was detected for films grown in vacuum and ammonia.     

Comparison of luminescence and physical morphologies of GaN epilayers

In this paper we examine a series of four GaN epilayers grown by MOVPE on sapphire substrates with different AlN buffer layer thicknesses. We examine the effect of the buffer layer thickness on the physical and optical properties of the samples via optical microscopy, cathodoluminescence imaging, photoluminescence, and cathodoluminescence spectroscopy. While the morphological and optical properties of all the films (excepting that with the thinnest buffer layer of 30 nm) are good, i.e. the films are smooth and the luminescence is dominated by excitonic luminescence, a number of circular island like features are observed in all the films whose density decrease with increasing buffer layer thickness. A large circular island present on the sample with the thinnest buffer layer and surrounded by cracks in the 11

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0 directions, displays some interesting acceptor related luminescence.     

Spectroscopic studies of Nd-doped alkali fluoroborophosphate glasses

A new family of three optical glasses of the following chemical composition with 1 mol% of Nd³⁺ were prepared to examine the effects of alkali fluorides in unmixed form:

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, where RF=LiF, NaF and KF. On the basis of the measured values of densities and refractive indices, the dielectric constant, reflection losses, molar refraction, Nd³⁺ ion concentration in glasses and several other physical properties were determined. Absorption spectra of these glasses were recorded and Judd–Ofelt intensity parameters (Ω_λ) have been calculated. Radiative lifetimes (τ_R) and branching ratios (β_R) for the fluorescent levels have been determined. To understand the laser efficiency of these materials, the values of the spectroscopic quality factor (Ω₄/Ω₆) has been evaluated and it is found that glass C could be suggested as a suitable lasing material.     

Near-tip fields of growing cracks and resistance curves

This paper gives the formulation and solution of near-tip fields of mode-I cracks growing quasi-statically in compressible elastic perfectly plastic materials. As Poisson's ratio v tends to , the solution approaches the solution of crack growth in incompressible elastic perfectly plastic materials. The rate of crack opening is determined as

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, where β = 5.454 for V = o.3. The evaluation of fracturing based on the criterion of the near-tip opening is discussed.     

Characterisation of dislocations, nanopipes and inversion domains in GaN by transmission electron microscopy

Transmission electron microscopy is used to analyse a range of defects observed in hexagonal GaN films grown on sapphire and GaN substrates by metalorganic chemical vapour deposition. Large angle convergent beam electron diffraction is used to analyse the Burgers vectors of dislocations and to show that hollow tubes, or nanopipes, are associated with screw dislocations having Burgers vectors±c. Weak-beam electron microscopy shows that dislocations are dissociated into partials in the (0001) basal plane, but that threading segments are generally undissociated. The presence of high densities of inversion domains in GaN/sapphire films is confirmed using convergent beam electron diffraction and the atomic structure of the {

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} inversion domain boundary is determined by an analysis of displacement fringes seen in inclined domains.     

Classification of 2 × 2 non-strictly hyperbolic systems for plane waves in isotropic elastic solids

The governing equations for plane waves in generally nonlinear isotropic elastic solids are a system of 6 × 6 hyperbolic conversation laws. For the half-space Riemann problem in which the initial conditions at t = 0, x > 0 and the boundary conditions at x = 0, t > 0 are constant, the system is equivalent to 3 × 3 system in the full-space Riemann problem. It is further reduced to a 2 × 2 system due to the fact that one of the characteristic wave speeds is linearly degenerate. For hyperelastic materials for which there exists a potential W whose gradients provide the strains, the wave curves near an isolated umbilic point are represented by the potential of the form

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which contains two parameters k and m. The classification of the geometry of wave curves depends on the values of k and m and can be classified into five cases. The potential function considered here is equivalent to considered by Schaeffer and Shearer where a and b are parameters. The classification presented here seems to provide simpler algebraic expressions. It also renders more refined classification as shown in the paper.     

Thermally induced logarithmic stress singularities in a composite wedge and other anomalies

Wedge paradoxes, which were first studied by Sternberg and Koiter (Sternberg E, Koiter WT. The wedge under a concentrated couple: a paradox in the two-dimensional theory of elasticity. ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics 1958;4:575–81), occur due to multiple roots in the Williams (Williams ML. Stress singularities resulting from various boundary conditions in angular corners of plates in extension. ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics 1952;19:526–28) eigenfunction expansion. The consequence of such a paradox is a change in behavior of the stresses from , to the ‘non-separable’ form,

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. The focus of this study is the problem of thermally induced logarithmic stress singularities in a composite wedge associated with ω=0. Both double and triple root examples are presented which lead to and behavior in the stresses, respectively. This behavior is primarily associated with incompressible materials for the clamped–clamped single material case, and for the full range of Poisson’s ratio for the clamped-free case. The study also includes non-separable eigenfunctions that occur when complex conjugate roots transition to double real roots. Perhaps the most interesting result is that for the clamped–clamped wedge with Poisson’s ratio equal to 1/2, the hydrostatic stress has a logarithmic singularity proportional to the thermal strain for all wedge angles. This result can be extended to conclude that for a confined, incompressible or nearly incompressible material with a relatively sharp corner, and subject to some expansion or contraction phenomena, high hydrostatic stresses can result.     

Dynamic fracture toughness of X70 pipeline steel and its relationship with arrest toughness and CVN

The dynamic fracture toughness K_1d and J_1d, arrest toughness K_1a and Charpy V-notched impact toughness (CVN) of a pipeline steel, X70, were studied at different temperatures. It was found that fracture toughness was strongly affected by temperature and loading rate. The fracture toughness decreases with decreasing temperature from 213 to193 K and increasing loading rate from to . At constant temperatures, only increasing loading rate can induce the transition from ductile to brittle. There exists a fracture transition caused by loading rate. Through thermal activation analysis, a quantitative relationship has been derived:

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. It can describe the fracture process at different temperatures and loading rates. At a loading rate of , the relationship can predict arrest toughness well. It provides the possibility of measuring arrest toughness with small size specimen. An empirical equation has been derived: CVN=4.84×10⁶T^−2.8K_1d(K_1a), which correlates K_1d and K_1a with CVN in one equation. This means that we can calculate K_1d and K_1a when we get CVN.     

Determining crystallization kinetic parameters of Li2O–Al2O3–SiO2 glass from derivative differential thermal analysis curves

The kinetic parameters such as crystallization activation energy, E, and the frequency factor, ν, of Li₂O–Al₂O₃–SiO₂ glass were determined by a new non-isothermal method. The method is described by the equation

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, where β is the heating rate and T_f is the inflection-point temperature of differential thermal analysis (DTA). The value of T_f is determined as the maximum peak temperature on derivative differential thermal analysis (DDTA) curves. Values of E and ν of Li₂O–Al₂O₃–SiO₂ glass were also determined by two existing non-isothermal methods, namely the Kissinger plot and the Ozawa plot, and compared with those determined by isothermal method. Values of E and ν determined by the proposed equation were 332 kJ/mol and 1.4×10¹³ s⁻¹, respectively. They are excellent agreement with the isothermal analysis results, 336 kJ/mol and 1.8×10¹³ s⁻¹, respectively. In contrast, both the Kissinger equation and the Ozawa equation give much higher values of E and ν.     

Beam stability issues in very large hadron collider

The Very Large Hadron Collider (VLHC) is a superconducting proton–proton collider with approximately 100 TeV c.m. energy and approximately 10³⁴ s⁻¹ cm⁻² luminosity [G. Dugan, in: Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE Particle Acceleration Conference, New York, 1999, p. 48.]¹ Currently, beam dynamics in this future accelerator is the subject of intensive studies within the framework of the US-wide VLHC R&D program. This presentation summarizes recent developments in the field. Besides general discussion on relevant VLHC parameters, we consider various beam instabilities and ways to avoid them. Finally, we outline possibilities for theoretical and experimental R&D.     

Precise energy of the weak 32-keV gamma transition observed in Kr decay

The energy of the weak isomeric 32 keV γ-transition in the ^83mKr decay was established to be 32151.7(5) eV. It has an intensity of only 0.055% per decay. This energy value was obtained from gamma spectrometry measurements of differences in the energies of closely spaced lines. This result allows one to determine more precisely the energy of the K conversion electron of this 32 keV transition, thus representing a unique tool for the energy calibration of the tritium beta spectrum that is measured in the KATRIN neutrino mass determination experiment.     

Position sensitivity of the TIGRESS 32-fold segmented HPGe clover detector

Sensitivity to the locations of γ-ray interactions within a 32-fold segmented clover-type HPGe detector has been investigated through 90 Compton scattering of -rays from a collimated source. A mean position sensitivity of 0.44 mm at an energy of 373 keV is deduced by comparing the average pulse shapes for net charge collecting signals, as well as transient induced signals in neighbouring contacts, from 1007 pairs of three-dimensionally localized interaction points. The reconstruction of individual event locations based on a χ² comparison with the measured set of basis waveforms is presented.     

Development of a low-noise analog front-end ASIC for CdTe detectors

This paper describes the recent development of a low-noise analog front-end ASIC for CdTe detectors. The ASIC is designed on the basis of the Open-IP LSI project led by JAXA and implemented using TSMC 0.35-μm CMOS technology. The ASIC contains eight identical channels, each of which includes a charge-sensitive amplifier, band-pass filters, and a sample-and-hold circuit. Preliminary testing of the ASIC achieved noise performance of 188e^-+7.5e^-/pF. In order to verify the low-noise characteristics, the ASIC was connected to a guard-ring-equipped CdTe diode detector with dimensions of and having a thickness of 0.5 mm. As a result, the gamma-ray spectra of radioactive sources were obtained with good energy resolutions of 2.51 and 2.35 keV (FWHM) for gamma rays of 59.5 and 122 keV, respectively, at room temperature.     

Target system neutronics study for NXGENS

The Materials Test Station (MTS) [E. Pitcher, G. Muhrer, H. Trellue, Neutronics Assessment of the LANSCE Materials Test Station as an Irradiation Facility for the JIMO Space Reactor, LA-CP-04-0903.[1]], a spallation target station, planned for construction at the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE), will provide the opportunity to test the prototype of a long-pulse spallation source neutron scattering instrument (NXGENS). In this paper, we present the target-moderator neutronics optimization study that was performed in support of NXGENS.     

A 600 kV 15 mA Cockcroft–Walton high-voltage power supply with high stability and low-ripple voltage

A Cockcroft–Walton high-voltage power supply with high stability and low-ripple voltage has been developed. This power supply has been operated in a ns pulse neutron generator. The maximum non-load voltage is 600 kV while the working voltage and load current are 550 kV and 15 mA, respectively. The tested results indicate that when the power supply is operated at 300 kV, 6.7 mA and the input voltage varies ±10%, the long-term stability of the output voltage is S=(0.300–1.006)×10^-3. The ripple voltage is at 300 kV, 6.8–8.3 mA and the ratio of δU_P−P to the output voltage V_H is δU_P-P/V_H=2.1×10^-5.     

Influence of anisotropy on the transient hygroscopic stresses in polymer matrix composites with cyclic environmental conditions

The transient residual stresses in polymer matrix composites induced by cyclic variations in temperature and moisture are very important and must be taken into account in the design of composite materials, particularly aerospace structures e.g. aircraft. Aiming to reduce these stresses, we have studied the influence of anisotropy on the hygrothermal behaviour of the laminated plates. The objective, here, is to contribute to the optimal design of composite structures. The anisotropy is evaluated using the degree of anisotropy introduced from polar representation of tensors [1, 2, 3, 4 and 5]. Various laminates, with controlled and random stacking sequences, were analysed under typical boundary conditions and with the same hygrothermal loading. The results show that the thermal and hygroscopic stresses vary differently with the degree of anisotropy in such a way that their superposition does not lead to a growth of the intern resulting stresses. The other obtained results show that the knowledge of the degree of anisotropy of the laminate permits us to predict the state of different stresses in the ply frame.     

Liquid-filled ionization chamber temperature dependence

Temperature and pressure corrections of the read-out signal of ionization chambers have a crucial importance in order to perform high-precision absolute dose measurements. In the present work the temperature and pressure dependences of a sealed liquid isooctane filled ionization chamber (previously developed by the authors) for radiotherapy applications have been studied.

We have analyzed the thermal response of the liquid ionization chamber in a interval around room temperature. The temperature dependence of the signal can be considered linear, with a slope that depends on the chamber collection electric field. For example, a relative signal slope of for an operation electric field of has been measured in our detector. On the other hand, ambient pressure dependence has been found negligible, as expected for liquid-filled chambers.

The thermal dependence of the liquid ionization chamber signal can be parametrized within the Onsager theory on initial recombination. Considering that changes with temperature of the detector response are due to variations in the free ion yield, a parametrization of this dependence has been obtained. There is a good agreement between the experimental data and the theoretical model from the Onsager framework.     

Production of a low-energy radioactive nuclear beam with high purity using JAERI-RMS

Low-energy (1–2 MeV/nucleon) radioactive nuclear beams (RNBs) of ⁸Li, ¹²B and ¹⁶N have been produced through nuclear transfer reactions using a recoil mass separator (RMS) at Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI). The contamination of the primary beam to the RNB was investigated quantitatively and was well suppressed. The typical beam intensities of ⁸Li-, ¹²B- and ¹⁶N-RNB were 1.4×10⁴, 7.8×10³ and , respectively. Their purities were 99%, 98% and 98.5%, respectively.