An Evaluation of Air Pollution Health Impacts and Costs in São Paulo, Brazil

The need to determine cost estimates of the hazardous effects of diseases is important in order to establish the priorities of actions for prevention and health management. The evaluation of air pollution impacts on health, based on expenditures, has been carried out, but there are obvious comparison difficulties among countries, as the health-per-capita investment varies enormously. In order to achieve a standard indicator, we applied the Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALY) method to estimate the health burden and cost estimate due to air pollution in São Paulo, Brazil. The basic methodology was the utilization of dose–response curves of epidemiological studies conducted in São Paulo to assess air pollution and its health effects. DALY attributable to air pollution in São Paulo added up to 28,212 years annually. An indirect health cost attributable to air pollution resulted in US$ 3,222,676. This estimate refers to the children and the elderly population. These results give a preliminary and underestimated value of the burden of diseases promoted by air pollution.     

Use of Escherichia coli BOX-PCR fingerprints to identify sources of fecal contamination of water bodies in the State of São Paulo, Brazil

Repetitive element sequence-based polymerase chain reaction (rep-PCR) is one of the commonest methods used to identify sources of fecal contamination of water systems. In this work, BOX-A1R-based repetitive extragenic palindromic-PCR (BOX-PCR) was used to discriminate Escherichia coli strains originating from different animals and water sources, and the suitability of the technique for bacterial source tracking (BST) was evaluated. A total of 214 strains from humans, 150 strains from animals, 55 strains from sewage and 77 strains from water bodies were analyzed by the BOX-PCR technique. When maximum similarity between the fingerprints was used, a correct classification rate of 84% was achieved for strains from human and animal sources. Furthermore, 95% of the strains found in sewage were classified as being from human sources by at least one of the four classification tools used. Classification of the strains found in water bodies in the State of S?o Paulo was based on the fingerprints obtained for human and animal sources. Most of the sampling sites appeared to be affected by mixed sources of fecal contamination. The use of BOX-PCR for BST could be especially valuable in developing countries, where simplicity and cost are important considerations.     

Networks and spatial segregation in the production of urban poverty in São Paulo

This article discusses the importance of social networks as survival strategies, testing the impact of segregation on the structure and organisation of personal networks of low-income individuals. It presents preliminary results of an ongoing study on personal networks of individuals living in situations of poverty in São Paulo. We analyse the characteristics of 89 personal networks of poor individuals living in three urban locations, characterised by different social contents and different contexts of segregation. The results indicate a considerable heterogeneity of networks (in terms of size, diversity of sociability spheres, among other dimensions) and a strong localism, which is commonly found in the three different urban contexts. At the same time, the analysis suggests a low impact of segregation and a more complex relationship between networks and space than previously described by the international literature.     

Implementation of riverside parks in the city of São Paulo – progress and constraints

The environmental degradation of urban rivers and streams in large cities has led to the development of a variety of public policies. In the city of São Paulo, Brazil, a policy for recovering watercourses and valley floors has been developed with the implementation of riverside parks. This represents a new paradigm for the city in terms of its relationship with rivers and streams. This paper presents the results of an exploratory study, which aimed to analyse riverside parks in the city of São Paulo during the last decade. The study analysed the main management difficulties in relation to these types of urban park during their post-implementation stage, assessing their performance in relation to their social and environmental functions. It addressed issues such as the state of the site before and after the implementation of the riverside park, levels of user satisfaction in relation to the state of the watercourse, sports and leisure facilities, green space, security and the way the park is used. The study showed that riverside parks are recognised as elements that improve the quality of public spaces, socially legitimised as public policies.     

Ethnobotany and ecological perspectives on the management and use of plant species for a traditional fishing trap, southern coast of São Paulo, Brazil

The cerco-fixo is an artisanal fishing trap widely used by traditional communities in the estuarine region of the southern coast of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The primary goal of the study was to investigate, through ethnobotanical and ecological approaches, the use of plant species by traditional fishermen to build the cerco-fixo at Cardoso Island State Park and Cananéia Island. Ethnobotanical data were collected through interviews, direct observation, plant collection and identification, and document analysis. An ecological evaluation was also done comparing five 20 × 20 m plots in a managed area to five 20 × 20m plots in an unmanaged area, both within arboreal sandy soil vegetation called restinga arbórea, found within the Brazilian Atlantic Forest domain. This study involved 34 fishermen living at Cardoso and Cananéia Islands. The fishermen know more than 90 Atlantic Forest plant species that can be used to build the cerco-fixo. Tree species from the family Myrtaceae were the most quoted in the interviews. With respect to the ecological evaluation, the cluster analyses showed greater heterogeneity in terms of floristic composition (i.e. greater floristic dissimilarity) within the plots of the managed area. The analyses of diversity showed a slightly higher species richness and slightly lower values for Shannon, Simpson, Hurlbert’s PIE and Evenness indices in the managed area (59 species; H′ = 3.28; 1/D = 10.77; E = 0.80; Hurlbert’s PIE = 0.91) compared to the unmanaged area (54 species; H′ = 3.39; 1/D = 20.21; E = 0.85; Hurlbert’s PIE = 0.95). The Hutcheson’s t test showed no significant difference between both areas’ Shannon diversity indices (t: −1.04; p: 0.30). These results are attributed to the greater dominance of the palm species Euterpe edulis Mart. in the managed area (28.2% of the trees sampled at this area; n = 118), which equals twice the percentage of individuals of the same species found for the unmanaged area (14.6% of the sampled trees; n = 48). We discuss the impact of the fishermen’s harvesting practices in the managed area with an emphasis on three main points: (1) the harvesting practices are likely not contributing to a decrease in diversity in the managed area; (2) the greater heterogeneity in terms of floristic composition found for the managed area may reflect a mosaic pattern created by the opening of small tree-gaps distributed across this area over the course of more than 50 years; (3) the disturbance promoted by the fishermen’s harvesting practices can be compared to natural disturbances of low impact that create mosaic patterns in tropical forests. This study emphasizes the prominence of the human dimension in ecological processes and the importance of considering the perspectives of local people when discussing the conservation of the natural environments in which these people live.     

Defining Nutrient and Biochemical Oxygen Demand Baselines for Tropical Rivers and Streams in São Paulo State (Brazil): A Comparison Between Reference and Impacted Sites

Determining reference concentrations in rivers and streams is an important tool for environmental management. Reference conditions for eutrophication-related water variables are unavailable for Brazilian freshwaters. We aimed to establish reference baselines for São Paulo State tropical rivers and streams for total phosphorus (TP) and nitrogen (TN), nitrogen-ammonia (NH₄ ⁺) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) through the best professional judgment and the trisection methods. Data from 319 sites monitored by the São Paulo State Environmental Company (2005 to 2009) and from the 22 Water Resources Management Units in São Paulo State were assessed (N = 27,131). We verified that data from different management units dominated by similar land cover could be analyzed together (Analysis of Variance, P = 0.504). Cumulative frequency diagrams showed that industrialized management units were characterized by the worst water quality (e.g. average TP of 0.51 mg/L), followed by agricultural watersheds. TN and NH₄ ⁺ were associated with urban percentages and population density (Spearman Rank Correlation Test, P < 0.05). Best professional judgment and trisection (median of lower third of all sites) methods for determining reference concentrations showed agreement: 0.03 &; 0.04 mg/L (TP), 0.31 &; 0.34 mg/L (TN), 0.06 &; 0.10 mg-N/L (NH₄ ⁺) and 2 &; 2 mg/L (BOD), respectively. Our reference concentrations were similar to TP and TN reference values proposed for temperate water bodies. These baselines can help with water management in São Paulo State, as well as providing some of the first such information for tropical ecosystems.     

Soil chemical changes under irrigated mango production in the Central São Francisco River Valley,Brazil

Irrigated areas in Brazil's Central S?o Francisco River Valley have experienced declines in productivity, which may be a reflection of changes in soil chemical properties due to management. This study was conducted to compare the chemical composition of soil solutions and cation exchange complexes in a five-year-old grove of irrigated mango (Mangifera indica L. cv. Tommy Atkins) with that of an adjacent clearing in the native caatinga vegetation. A detailed physiographic characterization of the area revealed a subsurface rock layer, which was more undulating than the current land surface, and identified the presence of a very saline and sodic (1045 microS cm(-1), sodium adsorption ratio [SAR] = 5.19) ground water table. While changes in concentrations of Ca, Mg, and K could be attributed to direct management inputs (fertilization and liming with dolomite), increases in Na suggested average annual capillary rise from the ground water table of 28 L m(-2). Accordingly, soil salinity levels appeared to be more dependent on surface elevation than the elevation of the rock layer or sediment thickness. The apparent influence of land surface curvature on water redistribution and the solution chemistry was more pronounced under irrigated mango production. In general, salinity levels had doubled in the mango grove and nearly tripled under the canopies, after only five years of irrigation. Though critical saline or sodic conditions were not encountered, the changes observed indicate a need for more adequate monitoring and management of water and salt inputs despite the excellent water quality of the S?o Francisco River.     

Environmental Impact Assessment and Environmental Audit in Large-Scale Public Infrastructure Construction: The Case of the Qinghai–Tibet Railway

Large-scale public infrastructure projects have featured in China’s modernization course since the early 1980s. During the early stages of China’s rapid economic development, public attention focused on the economic and social impact of high-profile construction projects. In recent years, however, we have seen a shift in public concern toward the environmental and ecological effects of such projects, and today governments are required to provide valid environmental impact assessments prior to allowing large-scale construction. The official requirement for the monitoring of environmental conditions has led to an increased number of debates in recent years regarding the effectiveness of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and Governmental Environmental Audits (GEAs) as environmental safeguards in instances of large-scale construction. Although EIA and GEA are conducted by different institutions and have different goals and enforcement potential, these two practices can be closely related in terms of methodology. This article cites the construction of the Qinghai–Tibet Railway as an instance in which EIA and GEA offer complementary approaches to environmental impact management. This study concludes that the GEA approach can serve as an effective follow-up to the EIA and establishes that the EIA lays a base for conducting future GEAs. The relationship that emerges through a study of the Railway’s construction calls for more deliberate institutional arrangements and cooperation if the two practices are to be used in concert to optimal effect.     

Dams in the Amazon: Belo Monte and Brazil’s Hydroelectric Development of the Xingu River Basin

Hydroelectric dams represent major investments and major sources of environmental and social impacts. Powerful forces surround the decision-making process on public investments in the various options for the generation and conservation of electricity. Brazil’s proposed Belo Monte Dam (formerly Kararaô) and its upstream counterpart, the Altamira Dam (better known by its former name of Babaquara) are at the center of controversies on the decision-making process for major infrastructure projects in Amazonia. The Belo Monte Dam by itself would have a small reservoir area (440 km²) and large installed capacity (11, 181.3 MW), but the Altamira/Babaquara Dam that would regulate the flow of the Xingu River (thereby increasing power generation at Belo Monte) would flood a vast area (6140 km²). The great impact of dams provides a powerful reason for Brazil to reassess its current policies that allocate large amounts of energy in the country’s national grid to subsidized aluminum smelting for export. The case of Belo Monte and the five additional dams planned upstream (including the Altamira/Babaquara Dam) indicate the need for Brazil to reform its environmental assessment and licensing system to include the impacts of multiple interdependent projects.     

Produced natures through the lens of biodiversity conservation and tourism: the Ponta Negra Caiçara in the Atlantic Forest Coast of Brazil

Understanding nature as an outcome of organising discourses generated through relative experiences of our surroundings has been the groundwork of a political ecology that deals with the distribution of environmental justice among people with different degrees of power. In this paper, we examine how the environmental legislation and the tourism industry have constructed the term Caiçara as a way to categorise the inhabitants of the Atlantic Forest Coast of Brazil, in ways that meet their goals, but in turn occludes the discourse of the Caiçara themselves. Ethnographic research conducted in Ponta Negra, a small coastal community located at the heart of the Juatinga Ecological Reserve (Paraty, Rio de Janeiro State), as well as a review of key legislation, management plans and tourism materials form the empirical basis of this research. First, we offer a critical examination of the historical origin of the term Caiçara. We then compare contradictory ideas of Caiçara produced by Brazilian environmental legislation and the tourism industry. While the environmental legislation has characterised the Caiçara as fallen angels who are no longer conservation allies, the tourism industry has profited by selling them as ecologically noble savages who still live in harmony with the environment. Our analysis shows how Ponta Negra people have become objects of powerful discourses of nature that hinder the recognition of their collective rights and weaken their position to negotiate for their own desires and aspirations related to their identity and livelihoods.     

Regulatory failures,split-incentives,conflicting interests and a vicious circle of blame: the New Environmental Governance to the rescue?

This paper addresses a current trend of New Environmental Governance (NEG). It examines whether NEG is able to overcome a series of complex regulatory barriers and market shortfalls that stand in the way of carbon emissions reductions in the building sector. Building on an evaluation of 20 NEG arrangements from Australia and the Netherlands, it discusses the limits of the effective implementation and use of NEG in this sector. The paper concludes by suggesting three strategies to improve the performance of NEG arrangements in the building sector.     

Deafness and Disability—Forgotten Components of Environmental Justice: Illustrated by the Case of Local Agenda 21 in South Wales

Abstract

This paper contributes to discussions of procedural aspects of environmental justice, understood as having procedural and substantive dimensions. It argues that the struggle for environmental justice must recognize the oppression of disabled people as part of the essential broadening of the notion of citizenship, which continues to be the focus for struggle for the international disability movement. Its case study of an area of South Wales suggests that at present disabled people, and the struggles of the disability movement, do not really feature in the way environmental activists (inside and outside government) see the world. This huge omission must be addressed, but in a way that avoids interpreting disability as an administrative category, and must engage with disablement as a political and contested notion. The paper develops the significance of this contention by considering the case of Deafness, which is entirely different from hearing impairment. The paper's case study, presented as an illustration of its arguments, shows that to regard Deaf people in South Wales as part of some generic category of ‘disabled people’ would be to ignore their self-identification as a distinctive linguistic community. Moreover, there is some evidence that Deaf people have a distinctive view of, and set of concerns about, quality of life, reflecting their distinctive experience of social injustice and marginalization. This underlines the necessity for a serious engagement with disablement as a political category, and the disability movement as a struggle for social justice, within the promotion of environmental justice.     

Environmental justice in Appalachia Ohio? An expanded consideration of privilege and the role it plays in defending the contaminated status quo in a white,working-class community

Environmental justice addresses inequitable distributions of health risks from exposure to pollution and other hazards. Appalachian residents of southeastern Ohio who live along the Ohio River are disproportionately subject to industrial pollution. Of particular concern is the DuPont Washington Works plant where perfluorooctanoic acid, or C8, was used to make consumer products. Although company officials became aware in 1984 that the water supply of Little Hocking, Ohio, was tainted with C8 coming from its plant, residents were not notified until 2002. Subsequent studies determined a number of health problems, including cancer, are linked to residents’ exposure. This qualitative study asked Little Hocking residents and environmental regulators if they consider C8 contamination in Little Hocking an injustice. Results indicate a lack of consensus – even among affected residents – concerning DuPont's^® actions as constituting an injustice. This finding, among others, is used to argue that many residents in Little Hocking, through their association with DuPont^®, benefit from class-based forms of privilege and seek to maintain them in the context of immobility and economic uncertainty. This explains why some communities may be considered an environmental justice community from an academic standpoint, but not self-identify as such. However, maintaining privilege at the local scale in the context of weak regulation enhances exploitation in Little Hocking while contributing to power at extra-local scales. Thus, environmental justice activists in white, working-class communities must overcome the challenge posed by privilege that defends the contaminated status quo.     

Gifting,ridding and the “everyday mundane”: the role of class and privilege in food waste generation in Indonesia

Current research on household food waste has not considered the impact of the inter-class power dynamics between employers and domestic helpers on food waste management and generation in the Global South. This article focuses on the issue of food justice and will demonstrate that it is important to reconsider household food practices within the framework of unequal power dynamics in household units – especially between employers and their domestic helpers. Informed by food waste regime conceptual framework, this paper will examine the complex food provisioning practices of Indonesian households. The research draws on 21 in-depth interviews with households of varying incomes, multiple site visits, participant observation and going along on grocery trips to better understand the power dynamics and practices that result in, or prevent the generation of household food waste. In addition, 12 key informant interviews with government officials, traditional food vendors, supermarket managers, and a waste collector was also conducted. In an Indonesian context, understanding the interclass dynamics of the household, namely, who gets to define what is “food” and what is “waste” is key to understanding the broader phenomenon of food waste in order to promote solutions to food waste prevention and food insecurity that is socially and environmentally just.     

An Analysis of Pollution and Community Advocacy in ‘Cancer Alley’: Setting an Example for the Environmental Justice Movement in St James Parish,Louisiana

Abstract

This study evaluates environmental justice issues in St James Parish, Louisiana. This parish is located along an 85-mile stretch of the Mississippi River which hosts over 100 chemical, petrochemical, refining and industrial plants and is often referred to as ‘Cancer Alley’. With the use of geographic information system (GIS) mapping, it was found that polluting industries are located in the sections of the parish that have the highest percentages of African Americans, the lowest average household income and the most residents without a high school diploma. It was also found that the areas of the parish that have the highest percentage of residents who are employed in the manufacturing industry tend to be the wealthiest in the parish, have the least number of African American residents and have the most residents with the highest levels of education. Second, the levels and types of community advocacy that have occurred in response to the pollution and disproportionate environmental impacts in the parish are evaluated to find the most effective course of action. This study concludes that the most successful way that threatened communities can respond to environmental injustices is to take the initiative to solve the problem, connect with larger groups that have expertise, educate the public, and obtain legal representation.