Local stiffening effect of 'double deck' bending strain gauges: part 1

In stress measurement where it is difficult or impossible to access the inside surface of the structure, "double deck" (DD) or "sandwich" bending strain gauges can be used to measure both the membrane and bending strains. A DD gauge consists of a pair of constituent foil gauges which are bonded on the upper and lower surfaces of a plastic base or filling. It is mounted on the external surface of the test specimen to measure the external surface strain, and by extrapolation, the internal surface strain of the specimen. The sensitivity of the DD bending gauge increases when the separation between the pair of constituent foil gauges increases. However, this also increases the stiffness of the whole gauge. If the stiffness of the DD gauge is significant compared with that of the plate to which it is attached, the presence of the gauge may cause significant changes in local stiffness and result in errors of strain interpretation. This study is presented in two papers. Part I presents an approximate, analytical solution for the local stiffening effect of a DD gauge and quantifies the errors in the strain measurement. Part 2, to appear subsequently in Strain, will present the verification of the solution using a three dimensional finite element calculation, a parametric study and a correction method that can be applied easily. The extrapolation errors due to the stiffening effect and random reading noises are also explored.     

Local stiffening effect of 'double deck1 bending strain gauges: part 2

In stress measurement where it is difficult or impossible to access the inside surface of the structure, "double deck" (DD) or "sandwich" bending strain gauges can be used to measure both the membrane and bending strains. A DD gauge consists of a pair of constituent foil gauges which are bonded on the upper and lower surfaces of a plastic base or filling. It is mounted on the external surface of the test specimen to measure the external surface strain, and by extrapolation, the internal surface strain of the. specimen. The. sensitivity of the DD bending gauge increases when the separation between the pair of constituent foil gauges increases. However, this also increases the stiffness of the whole gauge. If the stiffness of the DD gauge is significant compared with that of the plate to which it is attached, the presence of the gauge may cause significant changes in local stiffness and result in errors of strain interpretation. This study is presented in two papers. Part I, appeared in the Feburary 1996 issue of Strain, presented an approximate analytical solution for the local stiffening effect of a DD gauge, and quantifies the errors in the strain measurement. Part 2 (this paper) presents the verification of the. solution using a three-dimensional finite element calculation, a parametric study and a correction method that can be applied easily. The extrapolation errors due to the stiffening effect and random reading noises are also explored. The figure and equation numbers in this part are continuedfrom Part 1, but the reference numbering is specific to Part 2.     

Microstructured vacuum gauges and their future perspectives

New prototypes and concepts of microstructured vacuum gauges have been developed by using the fabrication technologies for micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS). The realization of such microstructured gauges requires sophisticated fabrication processes such as thin film deposition, photolithography and etching techniques. This approach of MEMS vacuum gauges is demonstrated by a few examples.Micro-Pirani gauges are based on the principle that the heat transfer between two surfaces is proportional to the number of molecules (and hence the pressure) transferring the heat, when the mean free path in the gas is larger than the distance between the surfaces. In contrast to conventional Pirani gauges with heated thin wires, in a micro-Pirani gauge the heat transfer takes place between an extremely thin heated membrane and the surrounding. The thin membrane (200-nm thick) is realized by deposition of siliconoxide/siliconnitride, photolithography and anisotropic etching of silicon wafers. Heating is performed by a meander-shaped aluminum thin film heater in the center of the membrane. This micro-Pirani gauge shows a high sensitivity in the pressure range between 10⁻⁴ and 100 mbar. By using a silicon “microbridge” with 10 μm small gap between heated membrane and surrounding, the pressure sensitivity of the chip is extended up to 1000 mbar.Similar concepts are presented and discussed with respect to the miniaturization of spinning rotor gauges. The new concept is based on the application of microfabricated disks (instead of spheres) and of electrostatic instead of magnetic driving forces. The extension of the sensitivity range for miniaturized spinning rotor gauges is also discussed.Finally, new perspectives for mechanical vacuum gauges are demonstrated. By application of micromechanical processes, very thin stress-compensated membranes can be fabricated which enable sensitive mechanical gauges even for pressures in the high vacuum range. First, experimental results with respect to these membranes are represented.     

极高真空电离规的校准实验研究

介绍了2支反磁控型冷阴极极高真空电离规和1支热阴极极高真空电离规的校准实验研究结果。实验设备是一台极高真空校准装置,实验范围为10^-9～10^-1Pa,实验气体为N2。实验结果表明,尽管2次校准结果的重复性较好,但就单次校准结果来看,每个规的灵敏度（修正因子）的最大值和最小值之间的偏差较大。因此,极高真空电离规要得到准确的测量结果,对其进行精确校准是非常必要的。     

The effect of ambient temperature on the sensitivity of hot-cathode ionization gauges

We measured the sensitivities of five hot-cathode ionization gauges for ambient laboratory temperatures between 23 and 31 °C. All of the ionization gauges exhibited very similar behavior, and the sensitivity could be adequately modeled with a linear function of temperature. The slopes of the fits were smaller than one would expect due to changes in the calibration chamber number density. The thermal transpiration effect, due to local heating of the gauge structures, can account for this, and a characteristic gauge tube temperature can be inferred from the temperature dependence of the sensitivity. A recent comparison of the high vacuum standards of several National Metrology Institutes (NMIs) was performed over the range of 10⁻⁶-10⁻³ Pa using hot-cathode and spinning rotor gauges as transfer standards. Among the participants, laboratory temperatures varied by as much as 5 °C. It is necessary to know how laboratory temperature affects the sensitivity of the hot-cathode transfer standards (spinning rotor gauges explicitly account for the gas temperature) so that individual laboratory results can be corrected to a common temperature.     

低温绝热容器中皮拉尼真空计取代热偶真空计的可行性分析

在低温绝热容器夹层真空度的测量中,皮拉尼真空计和热偶真空计较适用,目前热偶真空计应用较多。从测量范围、测量精度、测量温度、互换性、远程监控、检漏能力和性价比等方面,对皮拉尼真空计和热偶真空计的性能进行了比较,得出皮拉尼真空计更适用于低温绝热容器夹层真空度测量的结论。最后列举了目前国外几种典型的商用皮拉尼真空计和热偶真空计的技术参数。     

Sensitivity calibration of post-yield strain gauges under cyclic plastic straining

A plastic sensitivity calibration procedure is outlined for strain gauges under cyclic, four point bending. Tests show that the gauge resistance changes in an approximately linear manner with longitudinal strain for the first quarter cycle of loading. Calibration curves for subsequent reversals to the direction of deformation display zero-shift and non-linearity. Under balanced strain cycling, there is evidence of a cyclically-stable, sensitivity calibration loop. Theoretical considerations are given in which it is proposed that separate sensitivity factors apply to the elastic and plastic components of strain. It is shown that the plastic sensitivity factor is a function of (i) plastic strain induced hardening and softening in the gauge foil and (ii) any apparent change to the gauge resistivity due to imperfect bonding. The elastic component sensitivity factor equals the manufacturer's value only in the absence of hardening. The two sensitivities may be combined to give a total sensitivity factor when a post-yield strain gauge suffers elastic-plastic straining.     

一种基于应变测量的放入式电子测压器设计

目的：设计一种新型的放入式电子测压器。方法：直接利用测压器的外壳来作为应变式压力传感器，代替了压电式压力传感器，结果：给出了这种传感器的灵敏度和动态响应频率。结论：这种基于应变测量的放入式测压器具有结构紧凑，成本低的优点。     

Numerical Analysis of a Radiant Heat Flux Calibration System

Heat flux gauges are one of the devices that are used to determine the heat loads to which high-speed aerospace structures are subjected during flight. Prior to installation, these gauges are calibrated. The calibration system must be well understood if the heat flux gauges are to provide useful data during flight tests. A pseudo three-dimensional model of the radiant heat flux gauge calibration system was developed. The radiant heat flux gauge calibration system consists of a graphite plate heater and a circular foil heat flux gauge. The numerical model simulates the combined convection, radiation, and mass loss by chemical reaction on the graphite plate surface. It can be used to identify errors due to heater element erosion, and the deviations in the predicted heat fluxes due to uncertainties in various physical parameters of the system. A fourth-order finite difference scheme is used to solve the steady-state governing equations and to determine the temperature distribution in the gauge and the graphite plate, the incident heat flux on the gauge face, and the flat plate erosion. Initial gauge heat flux predictions from the model are found to be within ±5% of experimental results.     

一种活塞式压力计的数值研究方法

基于ANSYS流固耦合仿真技术,提出了一种活塞式压力计的数值研究方法,以0~250 MPa压力测量范围的简单型活塞式压力计为例,验证了该方法的可行性,并计算和分析了不同平衡工作压力下活塞间隙流体压力分布与活塞有效面积的变化规律。这种活塞式压力计数值研究方法,能有效搭建和模拟简单型活塞式压力计的三维模型,为活塞式压力计的理论研究提供新的思路。     

基于量块的步距规测量及不确定度分析

提出了一个使用电感测微仪在平板上与量块比较的步距规测量方法,并分析了其测量不确定度。该方法将对步距规的应用和测量起到积极的推动作用。     

Sensor for Stiffness Measurements Within the Adult Rat Hippocampus

This paper presents a sensitive compliance measurement system for determining the stiffness of the adult rat hippocampus. The device has been successfully fabricated which consists of two strain gauges incorporated in the SU-8 based cantilever. The cantilever-sensor has been fully characterized and its strain sensitivity was found to be approximately 2.5. in vitro testing on the brain tissue has successfully demonstrated that the system is sufficiently sensitive to provide distinctive direct stiffness measurements on various hippocampal regions.      

The behaviour of post yield strain gauges

The calibration of post yield electrical resistance strain gauges in tension shows that their behaviour is strongly dependent upon gauge construction, bond strength, the presence of instability and the mechanism of plastic deformation. For medium tensile strains in the range 0-5% the calibrations reveal that the gauge sensitivity factor consists of separate elastic and plastic components which are respectively identified with recoverable and irrecoverable strain components.     

真空计的发展概况与趋势

真空计量器具被广泛应用于各科学实验领域,种类繁多,样式各异。真空计的微型化是其主要发展趋势。概述了真空计的发展历程,重点对近年来真空计的最新发展作了梳理,并提出了某些特殊环境下真空度测量方法的构想。     

陶瓷量块的光干涉测量

陶瓷量块的许多性能有别于钢量块,在检定或核准之间必须对这些差异进行修正。本文讨论了检定陶瓷量块应注意的问题,介绍了陶瓷量块的光干涉测量方法,并给出了测量不确定度评定结果。     

测定材料屈服强度的应变计法试验研究

对应变计测量屈服强度的可能性做了讨论，选择适合弹塑性区测试的应变片，进行与引伸计的对比试验以考察测试结果的异同试验表明两种方法测试同一试样所得值之差最大为７ＭＰａ，测试相同状态不同试样所得平均值之差不到７ＭＰａ，由于差别很小，故应变计法可用于屈服强度的工程测试，且与引伸计法具有相同的测量精确度。     

Ionization vacuum gauge with a carbon nanotube field electron emitter combined with a shield electrode

The applicability of carbon nanotubes to an electron source for a Bayard-Alpert type vacuum gauge has been investigated. Three gauge configurations are designed to optimize the gauge performance. The optimized gauge, in which an additional shield electrode is fixed on a gate electrode, exhibits good measurement of linearity between ion current and system pressure from 10⁻⁷ to 10⁻² Pa. A gauge sensitivity of 0.05 Pa⁻¹ has been achieved under 100 μA emission current for nitrogen, comparable with 0.07 Pa⁻¹ of commercial ionization gauges.     

Stability tests of ionization gauges using two-stage flow-dividing system

Stability tests of four ionization gauges (a BA gauge, an extractor gauge, an AT gauge, and a BA gauge with a heating electrode) were performed using a two-stage flow-dividing system from four viewpoints: (1) the fluctuation and drift of pressure readings, (2) the repeatability of pressure readings, (3) the change in sensitivity owing to prior conditions of use and (4) long-term stability. These tests were performed at pressures from 8 × 10⁻⁶ Pa to 8 × 10⁻⁴ Pa using N₂ gas under tightly controlled conditions.The fluctuation and drift of the four IGs were within 1% over 1 h. Their repeatability was also within 1% during eight cycles with an interval of 1 h between each cycle. Although changes in sensitivity of several percent owing to prior conditions of use were observed, the sensitivity was recovered to within 1% of its original values after operation in ultrahigh vacuum for one day. The result of a long-term stability test over a year showed that the sensitivity of the four IGs tended to decrease by 2.6-5.4% due to aging, depending on the gauge.     

Development of a Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge for Measuring Small Strains in Concrete Beams

Abstract:  A vibrating wire strain gauge capable of measuring strains in concrete elements to an accuracy of better than 0.5  μ ɛ is presented. This offers some advantages over conventional electrical resistance gauges, the quoted accuracy of which is typically 3  μ ɛ , and which are often considered unsuitable for concrete because of their inability to span cracks. While vibrating wire gauges are potentially more accurate, they are prone to significant errors because of temperature changes. In the purpose-built gauge described here, temperature correction is achieved using an unstrained reference gauge. The vibration data are analysed using a moving-window Fourier transformation in order to identify and remove the geometrically nonlinear portion of the response. The resulting system is accurate, economical and easy to use. The gauges have been used to study the behaviour of cracked concrete specimens. Typical results are presented and discussed.     

空间真空测量技术研究

针对国内外在空间真空测量方面的研究状况作了简要描述,对研制的2种空间真空规(转换器方向性真空规和束检测器方向性真空规)进行了介绍,并对空间真空测量技术的后续研究工作作了展望。