Modeling friction stir welding process of aluminum alloys

The friction stir welding (FSW) process of aluminum alloys has been modeled using a two-dimensional Eulerian formulation. Velocity field and temperature distribution are strongly coupled and solved together using a standard finite element scheme. A scalar state variable for hardening is also integrated using a streamline integration method along streamlines. A viscoplastic constitutive equation to consider plastic flow and strength variations was implemented for the process modeling. Precipitates inside AA6061 alloys are sensitive to elevated temperatures and affect strength evolution with temperature. The overall effects of the precipitate variations with temperature on strength were reflected using temperature-dependent material parameters. The material parameters of constitutive equations were obtained from isothermal compression tests of various temperatures and strain rates. The effects of FSW process conditions on heating and hardening were investigated mainly near the tool pin. The microhardness distribution of the weld zone was compared with the prediction of strength. In addition, crystallographic texture evolutions were also predicted and compared with the experimental results.     

Impact of Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Process Parameters on Thermal Modeling and Heat Generation of Aluminum Alloy Joints

Friction stir welding(FSW)is a solid-state joining process,where joint properties largely depend on the amount of heat generation during the welding process.The objective of this paper was to develop a numerical thermomechanical model for FSW of aluminum–copper alloy AA2219 and analyze heat generation during the welding process.The thermomechanical model has been developed utilizing ANSYS~ APDL.The model was verified by comparing simulated temperature profile of three different weld schedules(i.e.,different combinations of weld parameters in real weld situations)from simulation with experimental results.Furthermore,the verified model was used to analyze the effect of different weld parameters on heat generation.Among all the weld parameters,the effect of rotational speed on heat generation is the highest.     

Modeling of AA5083 Material-Microstructure Evolution During Butt Friction-Stir Welding

A concise yet a fairly comprehensive overview of the friction stir welding (FSW) process is provided. This is followed by a computational investigation in which FSW behavior of a prototypical solution-strengthened and strain-hardened aluminum alloy, AA5083-H131, is modeled using a fully coupled thermo-mechanical finite-element procedure developed in our prior study. Particular attention is given to proper modeling of the welding work-piece material behavior during the FSW process. Specifically, competition and interactions between plastic-deformation and dynamic-recrystallization processes are considered to properly account for the material-microstructure evolution in the weld nugget zone. The results showed that with proper modeling of the material behavior under high-temperature/severe-plastic-deformation conditions, significantly improved agreement can be attained between the computed and measured post-FSW residual-stress and material-strength distribution results.     

高熔点材料的搅拌摩擦焊接技术

通过焊具设计、接头微观组织与性能、焊接温度场和残余应力、热源辅助的搅拌摩擦焊(FSW)几个方面,全面介绍了高熔点材料搅拌摩擦焊技术的研究现状.结果表明,合适的搅拌头材料为钨铼(W-Re)合金和多晶立方氮化硼(PCBN);采用合适的焊具设计和工艺参数,可以得到具有良好微观组织、高强度的FSW接头;在模拟搅拌摩擦焊温度场和接头残余应力时,应依据焊接过程实际进一步完善物理模型;引入辅助热源有利于高熔点材料焊缝成形并提高焊具使用寿命.     

Establishing empirical relationships to predict grain size and tensile strength of friction stir welded AA 6061-T6 aluminium alloy joints

AA 6061-T6 aluminium alloy(Al-Mg-Si alloy) has gathered wide acceptance in the fabrication of light weight structures requiring a high specific strength and good corrosion resistance.Compared with the fusion welding processes that are routinely used for joining structural aluminium alloys,friction stir welding(FSW) process is an emerging solid state joining process in which the material welded does not melt and recast.Joint strength is influenced by the grain size and tensile strength of the weld nugget region.Hence,an attempt was made to develop empirical relationships to predict grain size and tensile strength of friction stir welded AA 6061-T6 aluminium alloy joints.The empirical relationships are developed by response surface methodology(RSM) incorporating FSW tool and process parameters.A linear regression relationship was also established between grain size and tensile strength of the weld nugget of FSW joints.     

搅拌摩擦焊温度场的数字孪生建模方法

作为制造技术数字化与智能化的关键技术,数字孪生技术的发展对现有建模方法提出了新的要求.其中,信息与物理的实时融合是数字孪生建模方法中的关键.以搅拌摩擦焊(FSW)为例,建立了一种可在"移动热源法"数值模拟中实时融入实测温度数据的迭代式信息-物理融合算法,并论证了基于此对焊接温度场进行实时复刻的可行性.算例试算表明,此迭...     

Numerical studies on controlling of process parameters in friction stir welding

A thermo-mechanical model is developed to predict the material deformations and temperature histories in the friction stir welding (FSW) process. Based on this model, the effects of the welding parameters on temperatures and material behaviors are investigated. Numerical results indicate that the maximum temperature in the FSW process can be increased with the increase of the rotating speed. The increase of the welding speed can lead to the obvious increase of the efficient input power for FSW system. The material particles on the top surface do not enter into the wake and just pile up at the border of the wake at the retreating side and this is the reason for the formation of the weld fash in FSW. Both the increase of the rotating speed and the decrease of the welding speed can lead to the increase of the stirring effect of the welding tool, which can improve the friction stir weld quality. But when the rotating speed is increased, the weld fash becomes more obvious. When the welding speed becomes higher, the rotating speed must be increased simultaneously to avoid any possible welding defects such as void. The simultaneous increase of the rotating and the translating speeds of the welding tool can lead to the increase of the residual stress.     

Effects on the Surface Texture,Superplastic Forming,and Fatigue Performance of Titanium 6AL-4V Friction Stir Welds

The speed and feed effects of the friction stir welding (FSW) process on the surface texture along the top of a butt welded nugget were studied. The tests were conducted using fine grain (0.8-2 μm) titanium alloy 6Al-4V with a nominal thickness of 2.5 mm. It was shown that the pin tool marks along the top surface of the weld can be highly detrimental to both the superplastic forming (SPF) characteristics and the fatigue performance of welded panels. Removing the marks by machining the top surface after FSW was found to eliminate the predominant tearing of the weld during SPF and most of the fatigue life of across the weld was also restored. Through additional development of the FSW process parameters, the butt welded nugget was made to have equivalent SPF characteristics as the parent sheet material. By using a water-cooled pin tool and other cooling techniques, it is believed that the weld zone can be kept below the beta transus temperature during FSW, which enables the formation of a grain structure that is uniquely conducive to superplastic behavior, when compared to conventional fusion welding processes.     

Three-dimensional friction stir welding using a high payload industrial robot

The present study investigates the friction stir welding (FSW) process of extremely curved surfaces using a high payload industrial robot. The welding process of aluminum alloys in a butt joint configuration has been investigated over convex surface radii ranging from 104.5 to 14.5 mm. The weld qualities of the produced joints have been assessed by macrographs and tensile tests. It was shown that the FSW process needs an optimization of the welding path as well as an optional adaptation of the process parameters in the curved region in order to produce sound and reproducible joints without inner or outer defects. The results contribute to further fields of application where non-linear welds have to be produced.     

搅拌摩擦焊接过程的有限元模拟

对摩擦搅拌焊接工艺进行数值仿真，建立了搅拌摩擦焊接的二维数值计算模型，通过数值手段进行焊接参数研究。并研究了焊接工艺过程中焊件材料的流动情况以及在焊接过程中材料的应力和应变情况，且与已有结果进行比较。证实了所建立模型的正确性与可靠性。     

Finite element modeling of friction stir welding—thermal and thermomechanical analysis

Friction stir welding (FSW) is a relatively new welding process that may have significant advantages compared to the fusion processes as follow: joining of conventionally non-fusion weldable alloys, reduced distortion and improved mechanical properties of weldable alloys joints due to the pure solid-state joining of metals. In this paper, a three-dimensional model based on finite element analysis is used to study the thermal history and thermomechanical process in the butt-welding of aluminum alloy 6061-T6. The model incorporates the mechanical reaction of the tool and thermomechanical process of the welded material. The heat source incorporated in the model involves the friction between the material and the probe and the shoulder. In order to provide a quantitative framework for understanding the dynamics of the FSW thermomechanical process, the thermal history and the evolution of longitudinal, lateral, and through-thickness stress in the friction stirred weld are simulated numerically. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique is used to measure the residual stress of the welded plate, and the measured results are used to validate the efficiency of the proposed model. The relationship between the calculated residual stresses of the weld and the process parameters such as tool traverse speed is presented. It is anticipated that the model can be extended to optimize the FSW process in order to minimize the residual stress of the weld.     

高速列车铝合金车身双热源搅拌摩擦焊仿真

高速列车采用超长铝合金型材作为车身新材料。搅拌摩擦焊以固相连接原理成为高铁车身制造新工艺。针对单热源模型不足,考虑搅拌轴肩转动摩擦生热和搅拌头塑变剪切生热,建立搅拌摩擦焊双热源有限元模型。基于传统熔焊方式,实现满足搅拌焊特征的双面挤压型材接头变形设计。通过ANSYS二次开发,完成该工艺移动瞬态热交换数值仿真,获得焊接全程三维温度场分布,仿真结果与试验数据吻合良好。结果表明,该仿真模型可行．仿真结果合理,为高铁车身国产化制造工艺吸收和工艺优化提供参考。     

铝合金搅拌摩擦焊物理场三维数值模拟

基于热物理模拟构建的2024-T3铝合金Arrhenius本构关系,使用Deform-3D软件建立了搅拌摩擦焊三维热-力耦合模型,模拟焊接过程温度、应力、应变等物理场在塑性变形区的分布状态. 结果表明,各物理场受焊速和转速的影响均呈不对称分布,其中材料在前进侧表现为压应力状态,在后退侧出现受拉应力状态;此外,在前进侧材料分别向焊缝表面和根部流动,当材料由后退侧向前进侧的流动速度小于在厚度方向上的流动速度时,在焊缝内产生缺陷,并通过试验验证了这一现象.     

Recent Developments in Friction Stir Welding of Al-alloys

The diversity and never-ending desire for a better life standard result in a continuous development of the existing manufacturing technologies. In line with these developments in the existing production technologies the demand for more complex products increases, which also stimulates new approaches in production routes of such products, e.g., novel welding procedures. For instance, the friction stir welding (FSW) technology, developed for joining difficult-to-weld Al-alloys, has been implemented by industry in manufacturing of several products. There are also numerous attempts to apply this method to other materials beyond Al-alloys. However, the process has not yet been implemented by industry for joining these materials with the exception of some limited applications. The microstructures and mechanical properties of friction stir welded Al-alloys existing in the open literature will be discussed in detail in this review. The correlations between weld parameters used during FSW and the microstructures evolved in the weld region and thus mechanical properties of the joints produced will be highlighted. However, the modeling studies, material flow, texture formation and developments in tool design are out of the scope of this work as well as the other variants of this technology, such as friction stir spot welding (FSSW).     

Optimization of friction stir welding process to maximize tensile strength of AA6061/ZrB<Subscript>2</Subscript> in-situ composite butt joints

A variety of ceramic particles is added to aluminum alloys to produce aluminum matrix composites (AMCs). Establishing the joining procedure for AMCs is an essential requirement prior to extending their applications. Friction stir welding (FSW) is an emerging solid state welding which eliminates all the defects associated with fusion welding of AMCs. An attempt has been made to friction stir weld AA6061/ ZrB₂ in-situ composite. A four factor, five level central composite rotatable design has been used to minimize the number of experiments. The four factors considered are tool rotational speed, welding speed, axial force and weight percentage of ZrB₂. A mathematical model has been developed incorporating the FSW process parameters to predict the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and FS process is optimized using generalized reduced gradient method (GRG) to maximize the UTS. The effect of process parameters on UTS was analyzed. It was observed that the process parameters independently influence the UTS over the entire range studied in this work.     

先进的搅拌摩擦焊

搅拌摩擦焊是利用一种特殊形式的搅拌头边旋转边前进，通过搅拌头与工件的摩擦产生热量，摩擦热使该部位金属处于热塑性状态，并在搅拌头的压力作用下从其前端向后部塑性流动，从而使待焊件压焊为一个整体。它可以焊接所有牌号的铝合金以及用熔焊方法难以焊接的材料，并突破了普通摩擦焊对轴类零件的限制。由于搅拌摩擦焊是固态焊接，所以没有熔化焊时的气孔、裂纹等缺陷。搅拌摩擦焊的接头性能普遍优于熔化焊的。     

搅拌摩擦焊接的传热和力学计算模型

搅拌摩擦焊接（Ｆｒｉｃｔｉｏｎ Ｓｔｉｒ Ｗｅｌｄｉｎｇ）是最近发展起来的一种新的固态连接技术。它主要用于铝合金,可以得到小变形、低成本和高质量的焊接接头。本文提出一个基于三维热弹塑性有限元分析的传热和力学计算模型。利用该模型可以了解搅拌摩擦焊接过程中的温度分布和循环,并预测焊后的残余应力和变形。对６０６１－Ｔ６铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接进行了实例分析。传热分析表明,铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接时的最高温度不超过材料熔点的８０％,因而属固态连接,同时为预测焊接接头的组织性能提供依据。力学计算结果表明,搅拌摩擦焊接的残余应力与变形要比传统的熔化焊接方法小得多。工件中最大的残余应力大约只有母材屈服极限的２５％～３０％。计算结果与试验数据相近,可作为进一步研究搅拌摩擦焊接过程和优化焊接参数的有效工具。     

Friction stir welding of aluminium 7136-T76511 extrusions

Abstract

This research programme evaluates the as welded properties of Al 7136-T76511 extrusions joined through friction stir welding (FSW). Microstructural characterisation and mechanical testing were performed on the baseline material and on panels friction stir welded at 250 and 350 rev min^–1 (all other weld parameters held constant). Transmission electron microscopy revealed the microstructural features in each of the unique weld regions and demonstrated that the precipitate density and morphology in these regions correlates with the temperature profile produced by the FSW process. A thermal model of FSW is developed that utilises an energy based scaling factor to account for tool slip. The slip factor is derived from an empirical relationship between the ratio of the maximum welding temperature to the solidus temperature and energy per unit length of weld. The thermal model successfully predicts the maximum welding temperatures and profiles over a range of energy levels. The mechanical behaviour after welding is correlated to the temperature distribution predicted by the model and to the observed microstructural characteristics. As welded mechanical properties of the alloy trended positively with the energy per unit length of weld, i.e. the highest joint efficiency was achieved at the highest welding temperature.     

Influences of tool pin profile and welding speed on the formation of friction stir processing zone in AA2219 aluminium alloy

AA2219 aluminium alloy has gathered wide acceptance in the fabrication of light weight structures requiring a high strength to weight ratio. Compared to the fusion welding processes that are routinely used for joining structural aluminium alloys, friction stir welding (FSW) process is an emerging solid state joining process in which the material that is being welded does not melt and recast. This process uses a non-consumable tool to generate frictional heat in the abutting surfaces. The welding parameters and tool pin profile play major roles in deciding the weld quality. In this investigation, an attempt has been made to understand the effect of welding speed and tool pin profile on FSP zone formation in AA2219 aluminium alloy. Five different tool pin profiles (straight cylindrical, tapered cylindrical, threaded cylindrical, triangular and square) have been used to fabricate the joints at three different welding speeds. The formation of FSP zone has been analysed macroscopically. Tensile properties of the joints have been evaluated and correlated with the FSP zone formation. From this investigation it is found that the square pin profiled tool produces mechanically sound and metallurgically defect free welds compared to other tool pin profiles.