Detection of the human specific Bacteroides genetic marker provides evidence of widespread sewage contamination of stormwater in the urban environment

Human sewage contamination of surface waters is a major human health concern. We found urban stormwater systems that collect and convey runoff from impervious surfaces act as a conduit for sewage originating from breeches in sanitary sewer infrastructure. A total of 828 samples at 45 stormwater outfalls were collected over a four-year period and assessed by culture based methods, PCR, and quantitative PCR (qPCR) to test for traditional and alternative indicators of fecal pollution. All outfalls had the HF183 (human) Bacteroides genetic marker detected in at least one sample, suggesting sewage contamination is nearly ubiquitous in the urban environment. However, most outfalls were intermittently positive, ranging from detection in 11%-100% of the samples. Positive results did not correlate with seasonality, rainfall amounts, or days since previous rainfall. Approximately two-thirds of the outfalls had high (>5000 copy number, i.e. CN, per 100 ml) or moderate levels (1000-5000 CN per 100 ml) of the human Bacteroides genetic marker. Escherichia coli (E. coli) and enterococci levels did not correlate to human Bacteroides. A total of 66% of all outfall samples had standard fecal indicator levels above 10,000 CFU per 100 ml. A tiered assessment using this benchmark to identify high priority sites would have failed to flag 35% of the samples that had evidence of sewage contamination. In addition, high fecal indicators would have flagged 33% of samples as priority that had low or no evidence of sewage. Enteric virus levels in one outfall with high levels of the human Bacteroides genetic marker were similar to untreated wastewater, which illustrates stormwater can serve as a pathway for pathogen contamination. The major source of fecal pollution at four of five river sites that receive stormwater discharge appeared to be from sewage sources rather than non-human sources based on the ratios of human Bacteroides to total Bacteroides spp. This study shows the feasibility and benefits of employing molecular methods to test for alternative indicators of fecal pollution to identify sewage sources and potential health risks and for prioritization of remediation efforts.     

Evaluation of pepper mild mottle virus, human picobirnavirus and Torque teno virus as indicators of fecal contamination in river water

A reliable indicator is needed to predict and reduce the risk of infection associated with fecal contamination of surface water. Since Pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), human picobirnaviruses (hPBV) and Torque teno virus (TTV) have been detected at substantial levels in human feces, we explored whether detection of nucleic acids of these viruses is a suitable indicator of fecal contamination in river water. From September 2008 to December 2009, water samples (n = 111) were collected from the Ruhr and Rhine rivers and from the influents and effluents of a wastewater plant (n = 12). Quantitative real time (RT-) PCR was used to determine the abundance of PMMoV, hPBV, and TTV in comparison to human adenoviruses (HAdV) and human polyomaviruses (HPyV) that are frequently detected in surface water and were previously proposed as indicators. While PMMoV was detected in all river water samples, the other viruses were detected less frequently. The concentration of the studied viruses in positive river water ranged from 5 × 10¹ to 1.07 × 10⁶ genome equivalents per liter (gen.equ./l). All wastewater samples were positive for PMMoV, HAdV and HPyV, while TTV and hPBV were detected in 6/12 and 3/12 of samples, respectively. To determine if PMMoV is specific to human-derived fecal waste, fecal samples from human (n = 20) and animal (n = 53) were also tested. In contrast to the ubiquity of PMMoV in human feces (19/20) the virus was only detected at low concentration in a minority of the animal fecal samples tested (7/15 from chicken, 1/10 from Geese and 1/6 from cows). Therefore, in this setting TTV and hPBV do not seem to be suitable indicators of fecal contamination in water. Whereas, the high excretion level and dissemination of PMMoV in human sewage and river water suggest that PMMoV could be a promising indicator of fecal pollution in surface water.     

Usage and impacts of the Envirofit HM‐5000 cookstove

Burning solid fuels to fulfill daily household energy needs results in chronic exposure to household air pollution (HAP), which is among the world's greatest health risks. This paper presents the results of a cross‐sectional study of cookstove usage, fuel consumption, and indoor PM_2.5 concentrations in rural and urban Honduran homes cooking with the Envirofit HM‐5000 metal plancha stove (n = 32) as compared to control households using baseline cooking technologies (n = 33). Temperature‐based stove usage measurements showed high HM‐5000 acceptance, with significant displacement of the traditional cookstoves at both the urban (99%, P < .05) and rural study sites (75%, P < .05). However, longer‐term usage data collected in peri‐urban households showed that participants cooked on the HM‐5000 more frequently during the 3‐day monitoring period than during the following 3 weeks. Average indoor PM_2.5 was 66% lower in HM‐5000 households as compared to control households (P < .05). Lower indoor PM_2.5 concentrations observed in participant homes as compared to control households, supported by high usage and traditional stove displacement, suggest the potential for the HM‐5000 to yield health improvements in adopting Honduran households.     

Plant crown traits and carbon sequestration capability by Platanus hybrida Brot. in Rome

Measurements of carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration carried out in the city of Rome in the period January–December 2005 showed a mean yearly CO₂ concentration of 414 ± 45 ppm; polluted sites (P sites) had 21% higher CO₂ concentration than control sites (C sites). The significant (p < 0.01) correlation analysis between CO₂ concentration and traffic density measured during the study period at P sites showed that traffic density explained 51% of the CO₂ variation. The CO₂ trend during the traffic limitation days (provision imposed by ordinance of the City Council) did not show significant differences as regards regular traffic days, suggesting the ineffectiveness of this provision. Leaf area index (LAI) of Platanus hybrida Brot. was on an average 11% lower at P sites than at C ones associated with a lower total photosynthetic leaf surface area (SPT, 34% lower at P sites than at C ones). P. hybrida had a total carbon sequestration of 117 ± 13 kg year⁻¹ (mean value of P and C sites) playing an important role in sequestering CO₂. Thus, the choice of plant species for urban areas may be set out taking into account their own air amelioration capability. Plant traits of each species may be used for urban tree planting programs to ameliorate urban air pollution.     

Prevalence of human pathogens and indicators in stormwater runoff in Brisbane,Australia

Elevated numbers of enteric pathogens in the receiving waters following a storm event can be a serious public health concern. The purpose of this study was to conduct a preliminary investigation into the presence of human pathogens of concern in urban stormwater runoff. The involvement of a human sewage as a potential source of contamination was also investigated by using microbial source tracking methods. Water samples (20 L) were collected after storm events and during the dry weather from six sites in Brisbane, Australia. Collected samples were analyzed for fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), and then concentrated using hollow fiber ultrafiltration followed by molecular detection of selected enteric pathogens. The levels of FIB were found to frequently exceed the upper limit of Australian guidelines for managing risks in recreational water, during the dry periods and by further several orders of magnitude in the stormwater runoff. Enterococcus spp. numbers as high as 3 × 10⁴ 100 mL^?1 were detected in the stormwater runoff at the Fitzgibbon site. Human adenovirus and polyomavirus were frequently detected from all six sampling sites during wet and dry weather conditions suggesting their wide spread presence in the urban aquatic environments. Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli and Salmonella enterica were also detected during both dry and wet weather conditions. Presence of human-specific HF183 Bacteroides marker in most of the samples tested suggests ubiquitous sewage contamination in the urban environment. Since stormwater runoff routinely contains high numbers of FIB and other enteric pathogens, some degree of treatment of captured stormwater would be required if it were to be used for non-potable purposes.     

Concentrations in bird feathers reflect regional contamination with organic pollutants

Feathers have recently been shown to be potentially useful non-destructive biomonitoring tools for organic pollutants. However, the suitability of feathers to monitor regional variations in contamination has not been investigated until now. Here concentrations of organic pollutants were compared in feathers of common magpies (Pica pica) between urban and rural areas in Flanders, Belgium. The results showed that concentrations of p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) were significantly higher in the rural areas (rural: 12-140 ng/g feather, urban: 1.1-7.2 ng/g feather), while polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were significantly more available in an urban environment (sum PCBs — rural: 2.9-22 ng/g feather, urban: 41-240 ng/g feather). This pattern agrees with previous studies using other tissues than feathers as a biomonitoring tool. In addition, differences in PCBs and PBDEs profiles were found with lower halogenated congeners being more prominent in the urban areas in comparison to the rural areas. In summary, feathers seem to reflect regional variations in contamination, which strengthens their usefulness as a non-destructive biomonitor for organic pollutants.     

A pilot study of traditional indoor biomass cooking and heating in rural Bhutan: gas and particle concentrations and emission rates

Although many studies have reported the health effects of biomass fuels in developing countries, relatively few have quantitatively characterized emissions from biomass stoves during cooking and heating. The aim of this pilot study was to characterize the emission characteristics of different biomass stoves in four rural houses in Bhutan during heating (metal chimney stove), rice cooking (traditional mud stove), fodder preparation (stone tripod stove), and liquor distillation (traditional mud stove). Three stage measurements (before, during, and after the activity had ceased) were conducted for PM_2.5, particle number (PN), CO, and CO₂. When stoves were operated, the pollutant concentrations were significantly elevated above background levels, by an average of 40 and 18 times for PM_2.5 and CO, respectively. Emission rates (mg/min) ranged from 1.07 × 10² (PM_2.5) and 3.50 × 10² (CO) for the stone tripod stove during fodder preparation to 6.20 × 10² (PM_2.5) and 2.22 × 10³ (CO) for the traditional mud stove during liquor distillation. Usable PN data were only available for one house, during heating using a metal chimney stove, which presented an emission rate of 3.24 × 10¹³ particles/min. Interventions to control household air pollution in Bhutan, in order to reduce the health risks associated with cooking and heating, are recommended.     

Urban warming trends in several large Asian cities over the last 100 years

In this paper, the long-term trends in surface temperature in several large Asian cities (Seoul, Tokyo, Osaka, Taipei, Manila, Bangkok, and Jakarta) have been analyzed for estimating the effects of urban warming. A new index, E-HII, is proposed: it is the value obtained by subtracting the temperature data of the four grids around the city from the observational temperature data in the city. Osaka shows the largest E-HII, increasing from approximately 2.4 °C in 1901 to almost 3 °C after 1981. The E-HIIs of Seoul, Tokyo, and Taipei, have increased by 1 °C to 2 °C. Jakarta and Bangkok exhibited a lower E-HII. E-HIIs of Manila and Bangkok have been increasing rapidly after 1961.     

Cryptosporidium and Giardia detection in water bodies of Galicia, Spain

The objective of this study was to determine the mean concentration (per litre) of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in recreational river areas (n = 28), drinking water treatments plants (DWTPs; n = 52) and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs; n = 50) in Galicia (NW Spain). Water samples from rivers and from the influent (50–100 l) and the treated effluent (100 l) of the water plants were filtered using Filta-Max filters (IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Westbrook, ME, USA). A total of 232 samples were processed and the (oo)cysts were concentrated, clarified by IMS and then detected by IFAT. The viability was determined by applying fluorogenic vital dye (PI).In the recreational areas, infective forms of Cryptosporidium and Giardia were detected in 16 (57.1%; 1–60 oocysts per litre) and 17 (60.7%; 1–160 cysts per litre) samples, respectively. In the water flowing into the water treatment plants, oocysts were detected in 21 DWTPs (40.4%; 1–13 oocysts per litre) and cysts were observed in 22 DWTPs (42.3%; 1–7 cysts per litre). In the effluents from the treatment plants, Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts were identified in 17 DWTPs (32.7%; 1–4 oocysts per litre) and in 19 DWTPs (36.5%; 1–5 cysts per litre), respectively. The highest concentrations of (oo)cysts were found in the WWTPs; specifically, oocysts were detected in 29 (58.0%; 1–80 oocysts per litre) and cysts in 49 (98.0%; 2–14.400 cysts per litre) WWTP effluents. Cryptosporidium and Giardia were detected in 32 (64.0%; 1–120 oocysts per litre) and 48 (96.0%; 2–6.000 cysts per litre) WWTP effluents, respectively. The percentage viability of the (oo)cysts ranged between 90.0% and 95.0%. In all samples analysed. Moreover, it was found that the effluents from coastal WWTPs were discharged directly into the sea, while inland WWTPs were discharged directly into rivers. The concentrations of both enteropathogens detected in effluents from WWTPs therefore represent a significant risk to human and animal health.These results demonstrate the wide distribution of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the environment, the ineffectiveness of treatments in DWTPs and WWTPs in reducing/inactivating both protozoa and the need to monitor the presence, viability and infectivity of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in water bodies. In conclusion, the findings suggest the need for better monitoring of water quality and identification of sources of contamination.     

Modeling environmental contamination in hospital single‐ and four‐bed rooms

Aerial dispersion of pathogens is recognized as a potential transmission route for hospital acquired infections; however, little is known about the link between healthcare worker (HCW) contacts’ with contaminated surfaces, the transmission of infections and hospital room design. We combine computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations of bioaerosol deposition with a validated probabilistic HCW–surface contact model to estimate the relative quantity of pathogens accrued on hands during six types of care procedures in two room types. Results demonstrate that care type is most influential (P < 0.001), followed by the number of surface contacts (P < 0.001) and the distribution of surface pathogens (P = 0.05). Highest hand contamination was predicted during Personal care despite the highest levels of hand hygiene. Ventilation rates of 6 ac/h vs. 4 ac/h showed only minor reductions in predicted hand colonization. Pathogens accrued on hands decreased monotonically after patient care in single rooms due to the physical barrier of bioaerosol transmission between rooms and subsequent hand sanitation. Conversely, contamination was predicted to increase during contact with patients in four‐bed rooms due to spatial spread of pathogens. Location of the infectious patient with respect to ventilation played a key role in determining pathogen loadings (P = 0.05).     

Characterization and exposure assessment of household fine particulate matter pollution in China

Household fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) pollution greatly impacts residents' health. To explore the current national situation of household PM_2.5 pollution in China, a study was conducted based on literature published from 1998 to 2018. After extracting data from the literature in conformity with the requirements, the nationwide household-weighted mean concentration of household PM_2.5 (HPL) was calculated. Subgroup analyses of spatial, geographic, and temporal differences were also done. The estimated overall HPL in China was 132.2 ± 117.7 μg/m³. HPL in the rural area (164.3 ± 104.5 μg/m³) was higher than that in the urban area (123.9 ± 122.3 μg/m³). For HPLs of indoor sampling sites, the kitchen was the highest, followed by the bedroom and living room. There were significant differences of geographic distributions. The HPLs in the South were higher than the North in four seasons. The inhaled dose of household PM_2.5 among school-age children differed from provinces with the highest dose up to 5.9 μg/(kg·d). Countermeasures should be carried out to reduce indoor pollution and safeguard health urgently.     

Solid cooking fuel use and cognitive decline among older Mexican adults

Studies of air pollution and cognition often rely on measures from outdoor environments. Many individuals in low- and middle-income countries are exposed to indoor air pollution from combustion of solid cooking fuels. Little is known about how solid cooking fuel use affects cognitive decline over time. This study uses data from the 2012, 2015, and 2018 Mexican Health and Aging Study (n = 14 245, age 50+) to assess how use of wood or coal for cooking fuel affects cognition of older adults relative to use of gas. It uses latent change score modeling to determine how using solid cooking fuel affected performance in Verbal Learning, Verbal Recall, Visual Scanning, and Verbal Fluency. Solid cooking fuel was used by 17% of the full sample but was more common in rural areas. Solid fuel users also had lower socioeconomic status. Compared to those using gas, solid fuel users had lower baseline scores and faster decline in Verbal Learning (β = −0.18, p < 0.05), Visual Scanning (β = −1.00, p < 0.001), and Verbal Fluency (β = −0.33, p < 0.001). Indoor air pollution from solid cooking fuels may represent a modifiable risk factor for cognitive decline. Policy should focus on facilitating access to clean cooking fuels.     

Microplastics in the marine environment: a literature review and northeast England case study

The issue of microplastic pollution has seen an increasing focus over the last decade, both as a scientific research topic and due to intensive media interest. Despite this, there has been, until recently, a relative paucity of data relating to the volume and type of microplastics in the marine environment. The Cell 1 Regional Coastal Monitoring Programme, which covers approximately 300 km of the northeast England coastline, has recently collected subtidal sediment samples from the bed of the North Sea and analysed these for particle size distribution and microplastic content. This paper presents the results of this analysis along with a literature review of the sources, movements and concentration of microplastics in the marine environment.     

Priority pollutants in urban stormwater: Part 1 – Case of separate storm sewers

Organic and mineral pollutants have become part of today's urban environment. During a rain event, stormwater quality as well as the corresponding contaminant loads is affected by both atmospheric deposition and the various types of impervious surfaces (roads, rooftops, parking lots etc.) on which runoff occurs. This study provides results on stormwater pollution in Paris and its suburbs from three separate storm sewers (n = 20 samples). These results show that the stormwater had been contaminated by 55 chemical substances out of the 88 investigated. A particular attention was given to stormwater particle contamination. Concentrations are provided for: metals, PAHs, PCBs, organotins, alkylphenols, phthalates, pesticides, and VOCs. Our findings are among the first available in the literature since the relevant analyses were all conducted on both the particulate (P) and dissolved (D) phases. For most substances, particles from the three storm sewers were more heavily contaminated than dredged sediments and settleable particles from the Seine River. As a consequence of this finding, the release of untreated stormwater discharges may impact the receiving waters and contribute to sediment contamination.     

Microbiological water quality along the Danube River: Integrating data from two whole-river surveys and a transnational monitoring network

The River Danube is with 2780 km the second longest river in Europe. Its catchment area covers 801 500 km², with approximately 81 million inhabitants in 19 countries. River water for anthropogenic use, transportation and recreation is of major importance in all of these countries. Microbiological contamination from faecal pollution by anthropogenic sources is considered to be a crucial problem throughout the Danube River basin. Thus, detailed knowledge on the extent and the origin of microbial pollution is essential for watershed management. The determination of faecal indicator concentrations along the Danube and its major tributaries during two whole-river surveys and 16 permanent stations allowed for the first time to draw a clear picture of the faecal pollution patterns along the whole longitudinal profile of this important international river. By including a variety of environmental variables in statistical analysis, an integrative picture of faecal pollution in the Danube River basin could be evolved. Four hot spots and six stretches of differing faecal pollution were identified, mainly linked with input from large municipalities. Significant decline of microbiological pollution was observed in the upper and lower Danube stretches over the investigation period. In contrast, a significant increase in the middle part was evident. The planned implementation of new wastewater treatment plants and advanced wastewater treatment measures according to the European Union urban wastewater directive will have a great potential to reduce microbial faecal pollution in the Danube and thus improving water quality.     

Indoor concentrations of nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide from burning solid fuels for cooking and heating in Yunnan Province,China

The Chinese national pollution census has indicated that the domestic burning of solid fuels is an important contributor to nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emissions in China. To characterize indoor NO₂ and SO₂ air concentrations in relation to solid fuel use and stove ventilation in the rural counties of Xuanwei and Fuyuan, in Yunnan Province, China, which have among the highest lung cancer rates in the nation, a total of 163 participants in 30 selected villages were enrolled. Indoor 24‐h NO₂ and SO₂ samples were collected in each household over two consecutive days. Compared to smoky coal, smokeless coal use was associated with higher NO₂ concentrations [geometric mean (GM) = 132 μg/m³ for smokeless coal and 111 μg/m³ for smoky coal, P = 0.065] and SO₂ [limit of detection = 24 μg/m³; percentage detected (%Detect) = 86% for smokeless coal and 40% for smoky coal, P < 0.001]. Among smoky coal users, significant variation of NO₂ and SO₂ air concentrations was observed across different stove designs and smoky coal sources in both counties. Model construction indicated that the measurements of both pollutants were influenced by stove design. This exposure assessment study has identified high levels of NO₂ and SO₂ as a result of burning solid fuels for cooking and heating.     

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in Taiwan's surface waters: Impact of waste streams from hospitals and pharmaceutical production facilities

We investigated the occurrence and distribution of pharmaceuticals (including antibiotics, estrogens, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), beta-blockers, and lipid regulators) in three rivers and in the waste streams of six hospitals and four pharmaceutical production facilities in Taiwan. The most frequently detected pharmaceuticals were acetaminophen, erythromycin-H₂O, sulfamethoxazole, and gemfibrozil. NSAIDs were the next most-often detected compounds, with a detection frequency > 60%. The other analytes were not detected or were seen in only a few samples at trace concentrations. The present study demonstrates a significant discharge of human medications from hospital and drug production facilities into surface waters in the Taipei district. The high concentrations of pharmaceuticals found in the Sindian and Dahan rivers demonstrate the alarming degree to which they have been impacted by urban drainage (waste effluents from hospitals, households, and pharmaceutical production facilities). The ubiquitous occurrence at extremely high concentrations of acetaminophen and erythromycin-H₂O in both rivers (up to 15.7 and 75.5 µg/L) and in wastewater from hospitals and pharmaceutical production facilities (up to 417.5 and 7.84 µg/L) was unique. This finding, in combination with acetaminophen's status as the drug most often prescribed by Taiwan's dominant clinical institute, suggests the potential use of acetaminophen as a molecular indicator of contamination of Taiwan's aqueous environments with untreated urban drainage.     

Infiltration of fine particles in urban daycares

Singapore is a tropical country with a high density of day-care facilities whose indoor environments may be adversely affected by outdoor fine particle (PM_2.5) air pollution. To reduce this problem requires effective, evidence-based exposure-reduction strategies. Little information is available on the penetration of outdoor PM_2.5 into day-care environments. Our study attempted to address the following objectives: to measure indoor infiltration factor (F_inf) of PM_2.5 from outdoor PM_2.5 and to determine the building parameters that modify the indoor PM_2.5. We collected indoor/outdoor 1-min PM_2.5 from 50 day-care classrooms. We noted mean F_inf ± SD of 0.65 ± 0.22 in day-care rooms which are naturally ventilated and lower F_inf ± SD values of 0.47 ± 0.18 for those that are air-conditioned: values which are lower than those reported in Singapore residences. The air exchange rates were higher in naturally ventilated rooms (1.47 vs 0.86 h⁻¹). However, fine particle deposition rates were lower for naturally ventilated rooms (0.67 ± 0.43 h⁻¹) compared with air-conditioned ones (1.03 ± 0.55 h⁻¹) presumably due to composite rates linked to the filters within the split unit air-conditioners, higher recirculation rates, and interior surfaces in the latter. Our findings indicate that children remaining indoor in daycares where air-conditioning is used can reduce their PM_2.5 exposures during outdoor pollution episodes.     

Extreme selenium and tellurium contamination in soils — An eighty year-old industrial legacy surrounding a Ni refinery in the Swansea Valley

Elevated levels of selenium (maximum 200 mg/kg) and tellurium (maximum 11 mg/kg) are reported in topsoils (< 5 cm) from around a long-established nickel refinery at Clydach in the Lower Swansea Valley, UK. Se and Te are correlated with each other and when these data are plotted as contour diagrams they show a concentric pattern centred on the refinery site. The origin of the Se and Te contamination is investigated. A review of the changes in the refinery practices at the site is presented and used to link the soil contamination to industrial pollution which took place over 80 years ago. The most recent air quality data available cannot rule out some Se contamination up to 2003.     

Onset and remission of rhinitis among students in relation to the home and school environment—A cohort study from Northern China

Few prospective studies exist on indoor and outdoor air pollution in relation to adolescent rhinitis. We studied associations between onset and remission of rhinitis among junior high school students in relation to the home and school environment. A 2‐year questionnaire cohort study was performed among 1325 students (11‐15 years) in eight schools in Taiyuan, Northern China. Climate and air pollution were measured by direct reading instruments and passive samplers inside and outside the schools at baseline. Associations were calculated by multilevel logistic regression. Two‐year onset of rhinitis and weekly rhinitis were 26.7% and 13.1%, respectively. RH (P < 0.001), CO₂ (P < 0.01) and PM₁₀ (P < 0.01) in the classrooms, PM₁₀ (P < 0.01) and NO₂ (P < 0.05) outside the schools, and redecoration (OR = 2.25) and dampness/indoor mold at home (OR = 2.04) were associated with onset of weekly rhinitis. RH (P < 0.05) and CO₂ (P < 0.05) in the classroom and dampness/indoor mold (OR = 0.67) and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) at home (OR = 0.63) reduced remission of rhinitis. In conclusion, dampness/mold and chemical emissions from new materials at home can increase onset of rhinitis and ETS and dampness/mold can reduce the remission. PM₁₀, RH, CO₂, and NO₂ at school can increase the onset, and RH and CO₂ can reduce the remission of rhinitis.