Overlap between visual inspection time tasks and general intelligence

The stimulus display duration required for subjects to accurately compare the length of two line lengths (known as Inspection Time: IT), reliably correlates around 0.5 with general intelligence. It is not clear, however, if this correlation reflects general “speed of processing”, or some other element of the task. There is a consequent need for new experimental paradigms. We describe a novel IT task where participants viewed a sequence of eight briefly-presented coincident coloured circles, the first of which was presented for a variable duration. Participants reported the colour of the first circle. The threshold for perceiving this colour correlated 0.37 and 0.38 (p < 0.05) with two conventional IT tasks within a sample of 75 students. It also correlated significantly with scores on a timed measure of the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (r = − 0.39, p < 0.01). The implications of these results for the validity of the concept of IT are discussed.     

Learning executive function skills by playing focused video games

The objective of the present study was to determine whether it is possible to design a video game that could help students improve their executive function skill of shifting between competing tasks and the conditions under which playing the game would lead to improvements on cognitive tests of shifting. College students played a custom video game, Alien Game, which required the executive function skill of shifting between competing tasks. When students played for 2 h over 4 sessions they developed significantly better performance on cognitive shifting tests compared to a control group that played a different game (d = 0.62), but not when they played for 1 h over 2 sessions. Students who played Alien Game at a high level of challenge (i.e., reaching a high level in the game) developed significantly better performance on cognitive shifting tests compared to controls when they played for 2 h (Experiment 1, d = 1.44), but not when they played for 1 h (Experiment 2). Experiment 3 replicated the results of Experiment 1 using an inactive control group, showing that playing Alien Game for 2 h resulted in significant improvements in shifting skills (d = 0.78). Results show the effectiveness of playing a custom-made game that focuses on a specific executive function skill for sufficient time at an appropriate level of challenge. Results support the specific transfer of general skills theory, in which practice of a cognitive skill in a game context transferred to performance on the same skill in a non-game context.     

Measuring teachers’ perceptions about differentiated instruction: The DI-Quest instrument and model

Within a democratic and multicultural society, diversity is a reality, and differences between students are a fact which teachers have to deal with on a daily basis. Differentiated instruction aims to meet these differences in learning in order to provide all students with the best possible learning opportunities. However, to date no validated instruments exist to measure teachers’ perceptions of differentiated instruction and their related classroom practices. This study, therefore, examined the factor structure and reliability of the Differentiated Instruction Questionnaire, called the DI-Quest instrument. A list of 87 items was constructed, building on existing prevalent theoretical models of Differentiated Instruction (e.g. Tomlinson, 2014; Hall, 2002). An exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was undertaken to investigate the factor structure of the questionnaire. As a result, five factors emerged: two factors related to the teachers’ philosophy of differentiated instruction (the teachers’ mindset and their ethical compass), two factors referred to the practical principles that teachers apply to differentiate (flexible grouping and output = input) and the last factor (differentiated instruction) covered the self-reported extent to which teachers differentiated their instruction related to three types of differences in learning (students’ interests, readiness and learning profile). As a result, the DI-Quest instrument entailed 31 items with a five-factor structure indicating a good fit (CFI = 0.919; TLI = 0.911; RMSEA = 0.041 [0.037–0.044 – 90% confidence interval, p(0.05) = 1.000]; SRMR = 0.048; χ² = 5888.338, df = 465, p = 0.000). In addition, assuming theoretical relatedness between the factors, the validation of a DI-Quest model was empirically validated. We compared the model fit for two models by investigating which model had a lower BIC and AIC value and by comparing their chi square values. The best-fitting DI-Quest model showed four factors (teachers’ mindset, ethical compass, flexible grouping and output = input as dependent variables) functioning as significant predictors of the fifth factor (the self-reported adoption of Differentiated Instruction, which served as an independent variable). Moreover, this paper also discusses the psychometric properties of the DI-Quest instrument and the implications of the model for schools, educators and researchers.     

Self-confidence and metacognitive processes

This paper examines the nature of the Self-confidence factor. In particular, we study the relationship between this factor and cognitive, metacognitive, and personality measures. Participants (N = 296) were administered a battery of seven cognitive tests that assess three constructs: accuracy, speed, and confidence. Participants were also given the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI, Schraw, G., and Dennison, R.S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 460–475.), a personality measure of the Big Five factors and our own Memory and Reasoning Competence Inventory (MARCI). Results indicate the presence of separate Self-confidence and Metacognitive processes factors, and a moderate correlation (.41) between them. The Self-confidence factor taps not only processes linked to performance on items that have correct answers, but also sureness level in beliefs about events that may never occur. A hierarchical multiple regression showed that the Self-confidence factor was predicted by accuracy of performance, Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire, and beliefs of competence in reasoning ability.     

Process support in learning tasks for acquiring complex cognitive skills in the domain of law

Whole tasks for acquiring complex skills are often too difficult for novices. To solve this problem, process support divides the problem solving into phases, offers driving questions, and provides feedback. A multimedia program was used to teach sophomore law students (N = 82) to prepare and carry out a plea. In a randomised 2 × 2 design with the factors number of phases and availability of driving questions, students solving a task with fewer phases performed better and more efficiently than students exposed to more phases. Also, students receiving driving questions performed better, although not more efficiently than students not receiving such questions. The results indicate that whole tasks should be accompanied by process support, although task characteristics might restrict the benefits of driving questions in this support.     

History of sexual abuse and suicide attempts in alcohol-dependent patients

History of child abuse is considered one of the important risk factors of suicide attempt in general population. At the same time it has been shown that suicide attempts appear significantly more frequently in alcoholics than in healthy individuals. The objective of this study was to investigate associations between history of childhood sexual abuse and suicide attempts in a sample of Polish alcohol dependent patients. A sample of 364 alcohol-dependent subjects was recruited in alcohol treatment centers in Warsaw, Poland. Information was obtained about demographics, family history of psychiatric problems, history of suicide attempts, sexual and physical abuse during childhood and adulthood and severity of alcohol problems. When analyzed by gender, 7.4% of male and 39.2% of female patients had a lifetime history of sexual abuse; 31.9% of the study group reported at least one suicide attempt during their lifetime. Patients who reported suicide attempts were significantly younger (p = 0.0008), had greater severity of alcohol dependence (p = 0.0002), lower social support (p = 0.003), and worse economic status (p = 0.002). Moreover, there was a significant association between history of suicide attempts and family history of psychiatric problems (p = 0.00025), suicide attempts in the family (p = 0.0073), childhood history of sexual abuse (p = 0.009) as well as childhood history of physical abuse (p = 0.002). When entered into linear regression analysis with other dependent variables history of childhood sexual abuse remained a significant predictor of suicide attempt (OR = 2.52; p = 0.035). Lifetime experience of sexual abuse is a significant and independent risk factor of suicide attempts in alcohol-dependent individuals.     

Evidence of a continuum structure of academic self-determination: A two-study test using a bifactor-ESEM representation of academic motivation

Self-determination theory postulates various types of motivation can be placed on a continuum according to their level of relative autonomy, or self-determination. We analyze this question through the application of a bifactor-ESEM framework to the Academic Motivation Scale, completed by undergraduate (N = 547; Study 1) and graduate (N = 571; Study 2) students. In both studies, the results showed that bifactor-ESEM was well-suited to modeling the continuum of academic motivation, and provided a simultaneous assessment of the global level of self-determination and of the specific motivation factors. Global academic self-determination positively predicted satisfaction with studies and vitality. It also negatively predicted dropout intentions and ill-being. Specific motivation types additionally predicted outcomes over and above the global factor.     

Working memory as a moderator of training and transfer of analogical reasoning in children

Working memory is related to children’s ability to solve analogies and other inductive reasoning tasks. The aim of this study was to examine whether working memory also plays a role in training and transfer effects of inductive reasoning in the context of a short training procedure within a pretest-training-posttest-transfer design. Participants were 64 children, aged 7–8 years (M = 7.6 years; SD = 4.7 months). All of the children were pre-tested on inductive reasoning and working memory tasks. The children were trained in figural analogy solving according to either the graduated prompts method or practice without feedback. The children were then post-tested on the trained task and three additional inductive reasoning measures. Regression models revealed that visuo-spatial working memory was related to initial performance on each of the inductive reasoning tasks (r ≈ .35). Children’s improvement from pretest to posttest in figural analogy solving, as measured with item response theory models, was somewhat related to visuo-spatial WM but not verbal WM scores or pretest scores. Furthermore, transfer of reasoning skills to an analogy construction task was related to initial ability, but not working memory; transfer to two inductive reasoning tasks with dissimilar content was not apparent. Performance change and ability to transfer trained skills to new tasks are not often used in psycho-educational assessment but may be separate constructs indicative of children’s learning and change.     

Early-married and sexually abused girls differ in their psychiatric outcomes

Early marriage and sexual abuse are the two of the most frequent types of childhood abuse. Although early marriage is also a type of sexual abuse, it is associated with different physical, social, and mental outcomes than sexual abuse alone. The purpose of this study was to compare early-married girls and sexually abused girls who were referred for forensic evaluation in Turkey in terms of their sociodemographic characteristics, mental disorder rates, and mental symptom severity. We included 63 adolescent girls for whom a judicial report had been demanded and who were under 15 years old when they were married but were not yet 18 years old during the evaluation (15.51 ± 0.78) and 72 sexually abused adolescent girls between 14 and 18 years old (15.80 ± 1.10) in this study. Following a psychiatric evaluation, the study participants completed the Child Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index (CPTS-RI) and the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI). We used the Windows SPSS 16.0 software program to assess the results. At least one psychiatric disorder was determined in 44.4% of the early-married and 77.8% of the sexually abused cases (p < 0.001). A diagnosis of PTSD or ASD was observed in 11.1% of the early-married cases and in 54.2% of the sexually abused victims (p < 0.001). MDD was determined in 33.3% of the early-married cases and 56.9% of the sexually abused cases (p = 0.006). The CPTS-RI scores of the sexually abused victims were higher than those of the early-married cases (p < 0.001). All of the subscale scores of the BSI were higher in the sexually abused adolescents than in the early-married cases (p < 0.001). Although early marriage has severe physical, social and mental outcomes, it is not as severe as sexual abuse in terms of psychiatric disorder rates and the psychiatric symptom severity it causes.     

A study of Attachment Disorders in young offenders attending specialist services

Attachment disorders, specifically Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) and Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED) are disorders associated with neglect and abuse in which people have significant difficulties relating to others. This study aims to explore Attachment Disorder symptoms and diagnoses in young offenders and factors that may be associated with them such as mental health problems. A cross-sectional design was used with 29 young people who were known to Intensive Services, aged 12–17 (M = 16.2, SD = 1.3), 29 carers and 20 teachers. They completed measures investigating symptoms of Attachment Disorders and psychopathology. Eighty-six percent of the young people had experienced some form of maltreatment and the rates of an actual or borderline Attachment Disorder was 52%. A positive correlation between Attachment Disorder symptoms and other mental health problems (as rated by carer-report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire Total Difficulties Score), accounting for 36% of the variance was found, with a large effect size (r_s = 0.60). Attachment Disorder symptoms were associated with hyperactivity and peer relationship problems.     

Beyond teaching practice: Exploring individual determinants of student performance on a research skills module

The purpose of this study was to identify the extent to which intrinsic student factors such as cognitive learning style, learning strategies, motivation and statistics anxiety, as well as certain demographic factors, predict performance on a research design and analysis course (RDAIIA) in the Department of Psychology at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, with a view to developing future interventions for improving student performance. Using a sample of eighty students, it was established that the factors most predictive of RDA performance were secondary school performance (p < 0.0001) and age (p = 0.0106). Excluding demographic factors, self-efficacy (p < 0.0001), help-seeking (p = 0.0531) and a reflective learning style (p = 0.0071) were also found to be predictive. Performance also differed between students who had completed Mathematics on the higher grade in secondary school and those who had completed standard grade (p = 0.016). These findings present both possible directions and substantial challenges for future performance-intervention strategies.     

Attitudes,beliefs, and perceived norms about corporal punishment and related training needs among members of the “American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children”

Hitting children for disciplinary purposes (i.e., spanking or corporal punishment [CP]) is a strong risk factor for child physical abuse and is highly prevalent in the U.S. Yet, little is currently known about the relevant attitudes, beliefs, or training needs of key professionals who often advise parents regarding child discipline strategies. A survey of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC) membership, comprised of mental health professionals, physicians, child welfare professionals, and other professionals in the child maltreatment field, was conducted to assess attitudes, beliefs, perceived norms, training needs, and motivations to change norms regarding CP (N = 571, response rate = 51%). Most respondents agreed that spanking is a bad disciplinary technique (82%), is harmful for children (74%), and leads to negative outcomes (M = 3.0, SD = 0.6) more frequently than positive outcomes (M = 2.1, SD = 0.6; t = 20.8; p < 0.0001) for children. Professionals reported perceiving that their colleagues’ level of endorsement of CP (M = 2.4, SD = 1.0) was higher than their own (M = 1.9, SD = 1.0; t(568) = −10.7, p <0.0001) though still below the midpoint. Professionals reported high levels of preparedness to effectively advise parents on non-physical child discipline strategies, but reported perceiving lower levels of preparedness amongst their colleagues. They reported highly valuing giving such advice to parents and being very motivated to participate in activities designed to change social norms regarding CP. Most APSAC members are poised to change these norms and, in doing so, to help reduce rates of child physical abuse in the U.S.     

Dynamic task selection: Effects of feedback and learner control on efficiency and motivation

Structural features of learning tasks are relevant for problem solving but not salient for novice learners. Feedback in the form of Knowledge of Correct Response (KCR) during practice is expected to help learners recognize the structural features and to profit from learner control over the selection of learning tasks. A 2 × 2 factorial experiment (N = 118) was conducted to study the effects of the KCR feedback (present and absent) and control over the selection of learning tasks (learner control and program control). The presence of the KCR feedback yielded higher efficiency on a near-transfer test as well as higher learner motivation. An interaction between feedback and control, indicating extra beneficial effects of feedback when learners control the selection of learning tasks, was not found. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Spanking and adult mental health impairment: The case for the designation of spanking as an adverse childhood experience

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) such as child abuse are related to poor health outcomes. Spanking has indicated a similar association with health outcomes, but to date has not been considered an ACE. Physical and emotional abuse have been shown in previous research to correlate highly and may be similar in nature to spanking. To determine if spanking should be considered an ACE, this study aimed to examine 1): the grouping of spanking with physical and emotional abuse; and 2) if spanking has similar associations with poor adult health problems and accounts for additional model variance. Adult mental health problems included depressive affect, suicide attempts, moderate to heavy drinking, and street drug use. Data were from the CDC-Kaiser ACE study (N = 8316, response rate = 65%). Spanking loaded on the same factor as the physical and emotional abuse items. Additionally, spanking was associated with increased odds of suicide attempts (Adjusted Odds Ratios (AOR) = 1.37; 95% CI = 1.02 to1.86), moderate to heavy drinking (AOR) = 1.23; 95% CI = 1.07 to 1.41), and the use of street drugs (AOR) = 1.32; 95% CI = 1.4 to 1.52) in adulthood over and above experiencing physical and emotional abuse. This indicates spanking accounts for additional model variance and improves our understanding of these outcomes. Thus, spanking is empirically similar to physical and emotional abuse and including spanking with abuse adds to our understanding of these mental health problems. Spanking should also be considered an ACE and addressed in efforts to prevent violence.     

Child maltreatment and risk patterns among participants in a child abuse prevention program

The relationship between risk factors and Child Protective Services (CPS) outcomes in families who participate in home visiting programs to prevent abuse and neglect and who are reported to CPS is largely unknown. We examined the relationship between parental risk factors and the substantiation status and number of CPS reports in families in a statewide prevention program. We reviewed CPS reports from 2006 to 2008 for families in Connecticut's child abuse prevention program. Six risk factors (histories of CPS, domestic violence [DV], mental health, sexual abuse, substance abuse, and criminal involvement) and the number of caregivers were abstracted to create risk scores for each family member. Maltreatment type, substantiation, and number of reports were recorded. Odds ratios were calculated. Of 1,125 families, 171 (15.6%) had at least one CPS report, and reports of 131 families were available for review. Families with a substantiated (25.2%) versus unsubstantiated (74.8%) first report had a high number of paternal risk factors (OR = 6.13, 95% CI [1.89, 20.00]) and were more likely to have a history of maternal DV (OR = 8.47, 95% CI [2.96, 24.39]), paternal DV (OR = 11.23, 95% CI [3.33, 38.46]), and maternal criminal history (OR = 4.55; 95% CI [1.32, 15.60]). Families with >1 report (34.4%) versus 1 report (65.6%) were more likely to have >3 caregivers, but this was not statistically significant (OR = 2.53, 95% CI [0.98, 6.54]). In a prevention program for first-time families, DV, paternal risk, maternal criminal history, and an increased number of caregivers were associated with maltreatment outcomes. Targeting parental violence may impact child abuse prevention.     

Associations of adversity in childhood and risk factors for cardiovascular disease in mid-adulthood

Studies assessing associations of childhood psychosocial adversity (e.g. sexual abuse, physical neglect, parental death), as opposed to socioeconomic adversity, with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in adulthood are scarce. The aim of this study is to assess associations of various types of psychosocial adversity and cumulative adversity in childhood, with multiple CVD risk factors in mid-life. At study enrolment, women from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (N = 3612) retrospectively reported: lack of maternal care, maternal overprotection, parental mental illness, household dysfunction, sexual abuse, physical and emotional abuse, and neglect in childhood. Approximately 23 years later, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, plasma glucose, insulin, triglycerides, low and high density lipoprotein cholesterol, C-reactive protein, carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) and arterial distensibility were assessed (mean age 51 years). We examined associations of each specific type of psychosocial adversity and cumulative adversity with CVD risk factors. No specific type of psychosocial adversity was consistently associated with the CVD risk factors. There was evidence that a one standard deviation greater cumulative psychosocial adversity was associated with 0.51 cm greater waist circumference (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.02 cm, 1.00 cm, p = 0.04) and a lower arterial distensibility, even after adjustment for age, ethnicity and childhood and adult socioeconomic position. We found no consistent evidence that any specific type of psychosocial adversity, or cumulative psychosocial adversity in childhood, is associated with CVD risk factors in adult women.     

Promoting psychosocial adaptation of youths in residential care through animal-assisted psychotherapy

The goal of this study was to examine the influence of animal-assisted psychotherapy (AAP) on the psychosocial adaptation of a group of adolescents in residential care who had suffered traumatic childhood experiences and who presented with mental health problems. This study recruited 63 youths (mean age = 15.27, SD = 1.63) who were divided into two groups: a treatment group of 39 youths (19 female and 20 male; mean age = 15.03, SD = 0.51) and a control group of 24 (five female and 19 male; mean age = 15.67, SD = 1.63). The youths who underwent the AAP program had higher school adjustment in comparison to their peers who did not receive treatment. Their hyperactive behavior decreased, and they showed better social skills, more leadership, and fewer attention problems. They also showed a more positive attitude toward their teachers in comparison to controls. No differences were observed in other variables associated with clinical symptoms or personal adjustment. These results suggest that AAP can be effective with teenagers who have suffered childhood traumas and who present with problems of psychosocial adaptation.     

Validating the English Language Learner Motivation Scale (ELLMS): Pre-college to measure language learning motivational orientations among young ELLs

This study modified and validated a measure of motivational orientations – grounded in self-determination theory and originally developed for postsecondary students – for use with younger (pre-college) English language learners (ELLs). Exploratory factor analysis results in Sample A (n = 528) indicated that the data were best explained by a three-factor solution (intrinsic motivation, introjected regulation, and external regulation) that explained 51.6% of the variance. These results were corroborated by a confirmatory factor analysis in an independent Sample B (n = 529; GFI = .97, CFI = .96, SRMR = .04, RMSEA = .05). The test for invariance across the two samples further supported the validity of the measure. The modified instrument, named English Language Learner Motivation Scale (ELLMS): Pre-College, showed strong psychometric characteristics for use with elementary (ages 9–11 years), middle (ages 12–14 years), and high school (ages 16–17) ELLs. Applications of the measure are discussed.     

Sexual abuse history among adult sex offenders and non-sex offenders: A meta-analysis

ObjectiveThe sexually abused–sexual abuser hypothesis states there is a specific relationship between sexual abuse history and sexual offending, such that individuals who experience sexual abuse are significantly more likely to later engage in sexual offenses. Therefore, samples of adult sex offenders should contain a disproportionate number of individuals who have experienced sexual abuse, but not necessarily other types of abuse, compared with samples of other types of offenders.MethodsWe compared rates of sexual and other forms of abuse reported in 17 studies, involving 1,037 sex offenders and 1,762 non-sex offenders. We also examined the prevalence of different forms of abuse in 15 studies that compared adult sex offenders against adults (n = 962) and against children (n = 1,334), to determine if the sexually abused–sexual abuser association is even more specific to individuals who sexually offend against children.ResultsWe observed a higher prevalence of sexual abuse history among adult sex offenders than among non-sex offenders (Odds Ratio = 3.36, 95% confidence intervals of 2.23–4.82). The two groups did not significantly differ with regard to physical abuse history (OR = 1.50, 95% CI = 0.88–2.56). There was a significantly lower prevalence of sexual abuse history among sex offenders against adults compared to sex offenders against children (OR = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.35–0.74), whereas the opposite was found for physical abuse (OR = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.02–2.02).ConclusionThere is support for the sexually abused–sexual abuser hypothesis, in that sex offenders are more likely to have been sexually abused than non-sex offenders, but not more likely to have been physically abused. We discuss potential mechanisms for the relationship between sexual abuse history and sexual offending, including the possibility that a third factor might account for the relationship.Practice implicationsThe most obvious implications of these findings is that the prevention of sexual abuse of children, either through prevention programs directly targeting children or through treatment programs targeting individuals who are likely to sexually offend against children (e.g., known sex offenders against extra-familial boys), may eventually reduce the number of sex offenders. This implication is dependent, however, on a causal role of childhood sexual abuse, and on the effectiveness of prevention and treatment practices.