Blood alcohol levels of patrons leaving licensed premises in Perth,Western Australia

Abstract: We aimed to determine the alcohol consumption, blood alcohol levels (BALs) and subsequent driving of patrons leaving 15 hotels and taverns in Perth, Western Australia. Of the 414 patrons approached by interviewers on Friday and Saturday evenings, 307 (74 per cent) consented to take part. Self-reported alcohol consumption, driving intentions, perceived levels of fitness to drive and demographic information were collected using an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Observations of subsequent driving were recorded and BALs were measured by breath-alcohol meter. The patrons surveyed were predominantly male (76 per cent) and aged between 18 and 35 (87 per cent). Average reported alcohol consumption was 7.6 standard drinks for males and 4.9 drinks for females, around double the daily amount recommended by the National Health and Medical Research Council. Further, 23 per cent of the sample had consumed more than 10 drinks (male) and 6 drinks (female). With respect to BALs, 37 per cent of patrons exceeded the drink-drive limit then in force of 0.087 and 56 per cent exceeded 0.05. Of greater concern, 23 per cent who were over the 0.08 legal limit were subsequently observed to drive even though they had been informed of their BAL and legal status with respect to driving. The results suggest that most young patrons drinking in Perth metropolitan hotels and taverns consume alcohol on such occasions in excess of limits currently recommended by health authorities and attain blood alcohol levels dangerous for driving. This is likely to remain unchanged without public debate as to the responsibility of licensees in serving a potentially harmful psychotropic drug and effective enforcement of liquor licensing laws.     

Blood lead levels in children, China

To evaluate Chinese children's blood lead levels (BLLs) and identify its distribution features, we collected articles on children's BLLs published from 1994 to March 2004 using the Chinese Biomedical Disc and reviewed 32 articles eligible for the following criteria: (1) BLLs measured by Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy or Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry; (2) strict quality control; (3) no lead pollution sources in the areas where the screened subjects live; and (4) sample size bigger than 100. We found that mean BLLs of Chinese children was 92.9 microg/L (37.2-254.2 microg/L), and 33.8% (9.6-80.5%) of the subjects had BLLs higher than 100 microg/L. Nine of the 27 provinces or cities reported had average BLLs 100 microg/L. Boys' BLL was 96.4 microg/L, significantly higher than girls' 89.4 microg/L (P<0.001). BLLs of children 6 years increased with age. The mean BLLs of children living in industrial and urban areas were significantly higher than those of children in suburbs and rural areas. Our results suggested that children's BLLs in China are higher than those of their counterparts in other countries due to its heavy lead pollution. Therefore, this is of great public health importance.     

Blood lead levels of contemporary Japanese children

Objectives  

Lead concentrations in whole blood (BPb) of Japanese children were measured to obtain insight into the sources of variation and to estimate health risk.     

Blood lead levels among high-risk children, Detroit, Michigan.

Since 1972, a federally funded lead screening program has been operational in Detroit, Michigan. Blood lead screening data (27,430 initial tests on Black children less than or equal to 6 years) were assigned by census tract of child's residence to one of the 15 socioeconomically similar areas in geographic proximity to one another. Higher blood lead levels were associated with lower education, lower income, and increased proportion of single parent families. This emphasizes the need to continue screening efforts in lower socioeconomic areas with older housing.     

2007-2011年中国儿童血铅水平及铅中毒率的分析

摘要:目的　描述2007-2011年我国儿童整体血铅水平、铅中毒率及分布特征。方法　本研究通过计算机检索2007-2012年公开发表的关于儿童血铅水平和（或）铅中毒率研究的论文,依照时间挑选出2007-2011年的文献按年份分类整理。对27省（市）88万多人做了调查研究。结果　2007-2011年我国儿童血铅水平（μg/L）分别是:68.62、59.13、53.36、66.56和46.56,平均血铅水平58.88 μg/L;而相应的儿童铅中毒率（%）分别是:19.56、11.56、12.67、10.41和7.27,平均铅中毒率是12.29%。结果说明,2007-2011年我国0～5岁儿童的血铅水平和铅中毒率随着年龄的增加而升高,尽管6岁组与5岁组相比,血铅水平及铅中毒率有所降低,但仍高于其他年龄组;同样,除2010年的儿童血铅水平比2008和2009年有所增加外,2007-2011年儿童血铅水平和铅中毒率随着年份的增加呈降低趋势。此外,经Meta分析发现,2007-2011年儿童铅中毒率和血铅水平也呈现明显的性别分布特征和地区分布特征。结论　2007-2011年我国儿童血铅水平和铅中毒率仍然较高,预防儿童铅中毒仍然是我国今后应当重视的医学问题和社会问题。     

Blood lead levels of primary school children in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Dhaka, Bangladesh, has one of the highest air lead levels in the world. In February 2000, we evaluated children at five primary schools in Dhaka to determine blood lead (BPb) levels, sources of environmental exposure, and potential risk factors for lead poisoning. Selected schools represented a range of geographic and socioeconomic strata. A total of 779 students 4-12 years of age participated. The mean BPb level was 15.0 microg/dL (range 4.2-63.1 microg/dL). Most students (87.4%) had BPb levels above the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's level of concern (10 microg/dL). Elevated BPb levels correlated with soil eating [odds ratio (OR) = 3.31; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.30-8.39], low parental education (OR = 2.72; 95% CI, 1.97-3.75), living close to major roads (OR = 2.30; 95% CI, 1.23-4.29), and increasing age (OR = 1.11; 95% CI, 1.06-1.16). BPb levels measured were similar to those in other countries that use leaded gasoline. No other potential sources of lead exposure were consistently identified. Combustion of leaded gasoline is the main source of lead exposure in Dhaka, resulting in ubiquitous contamination of the environment. The increase in BPb levels with age, a finding contrary to observations in the United States and Australia, may be related to increased outdoor activities. The Bangladeshi government recently announced a plan to eliminate leaded gasoline. Baseline BPb surveys are critical to develop and evaluate intervention policies. Strategies to reduce BPb levels need to address variations in socioeconomic status, construction type and location of housing, and levels of hygiene.     

A survey of contraceptive use and unplanned pregnancy in Perth,Western Australia

Abstract: Contraceptive use and unplanned pregnancy were studied in a stratified cluster sample of 1 511 couples with women aged 16 to 44 years resident in metropolitan Perth in 1988. Twenty-one couples were excluded from analysis owing to missing data. The proportion of couples using contraception was 76.8 per cent (1 144 of 1 490), and all but three of the remaining couples gave a reason for nonuse. Among users, surgical sterilisation made up 42.3 per cent (484 of 1 144) of all methods, with a slight predominance of tubal ligation over vasectomy. Oral contraceptives accounted for just over half of nonsurgical methods. Comparisons with a Victorian survey performed in 1978 suggested that surgical methods and condom use may have increased, whereas use of oral contraceptives and intrauterine devices may have fallen. Unplanned pregnancies conceived during the 12 months before the interview affected 3.4 percent (51 of 1 490) of respondents. The incidence of unplanned pregnancy was four times higher in couples with inconsistent usage patterns of contraception.     

A case-control study of childhood pedestrian injuries in Perth, Western Australia.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To identify the determinants of childhood pedestrian injuries, taking the child's exposure to the road environment into account. DESIGN: This was a case-control study. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: The study was conducted in Perth, Western Australia between 1991 and 1993. Altogether 100 injured and 400 uninjured child pedestrians aged 1 to 14 years were studied. Aspects of the child's social and physical environments, measures of his or her behaviour, cognitive skills, and "habitual" exposure to the road environment, as well as his or her knowledge of road safety, were recorded. MAIN RESULTS: The likelihood of injury increased by 12% with each 10,000 vehicles per day increase in the volume of traffic (odds ratio (OR) 1.12, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.05, 1.19) on roads most frequently crossed. In addition, the presence of visual obstacles on the verge of the child's street of residence increased the likelihood of injury by more than 2.6 times (OR 2.68, 95% CI = 1.42, 5.02). In contrast, the absence of footpaths was associated with a 52% reduction in the likelihood of injury compared with the presence of footpaths on the child's street of residence (OR 0.48, 95% CI = 0.27, 0.87). CONCLUSION: The amount of exposure to the road environment and the nature of the road environment to which the child pedestrian was exposed partly influenced the likelihood of injury in children from low socioeconomic areas, male children, and children aged 13 to 14 years. Until now, the excess incidence of childhood pedestrian injuries in these subgroups of the population had not been explained because the child's exposure per se had not been examined.     

Community blood lead survey with emphasis on preschool children following lead dust pollution in Esperance, Western Australia

Objective: To assess the impact of airborne lead dust on blood lead levels in residents of Esperance, a regional Western Australian town, with particular reference to preschool children. Methods: Following identification of significant airborne lead contamination, residents were notified that a blood lead clinic was available to all, with testing of preschool children encouraged. About 40% (333 children) of the preschool group and about 20% of the remaining population were tested. The main measures were blood lead levels, prevalence of elevated results and comparisons to other Western Australian surveys. Results: In preschoolers, 2.1% (seven children) had blood lead levels exceeding the current 10 μg/dL level of concern. This was not significantly different to two previous community‐based surveys elsewhere in Western Australia. However, at a lower cut‐off of 5 μg/dL, the prevalence of elevated lead levels was 24.6%, significantly higher than children tested in a previous Western Australian survey. The prevalence of blood lead levels of 10 μg/dL or greater in adults was 1.3% (26 adults), not significantly different from a previous Western Australian survey. Conclusions: The prevalence of preschool children with blood lead levels exceeding the current level of concern was not significantly increased. However, the increased prevalence of children with lead levels at or above 5 μg/dL demonstrates exposure to lead dust pollution. Implications: This episode of lead dust contamination highlights the need for strict adherence to environmental controls and effective monitoring processes to ensure the prevention of future events.     

Blood lead levels in children: Epidemiology vs. simulations

The key problem in environmental health is to identify the potential health hazards at the lowest possible cost based upon available environmental data. Biokinetic models such as IEUBK Lead 0.99d are very promising in this respect. We attempted a comparison between epidemiological data and predictions of the model. As input, we used the existing exposure data for the Katowice Voivodship (administrative district, Poland). Epidemiological analysis was based on the results of the screening programme Prevention of the Environmental Lead Intoxication in Children Living in Katowice Voivodship. The simulations consisted of predicted distributions of blood lead levels in children. They have been compared with observed distributions. Sensitivity analysis of simulations with respect to lead concentration in air, soil, water and diet has also been performed. The agreement between predicted and observed mean blood lead levels was quite good (relative difference of about 40%) as for the coarse exposure assessment employed. At the level of risk (fraction of population having blood lead levels exceeding 10 g/dl) the difference is much higher (about a factor of 2). In order to explain this discrepancy we checked the goodness of fit for the log-normal distribution function (usually taken as a template distribution for lead in the population) in the right tail of the distribution. We noticed a systematic effect depleting the right tail of the actual distribution as compared with the log-normal one. Therefore one can expect that using (as a template) another skewed distribution better fitted in the right tail would improve the accuracy of risk assessment.     

Blood levels of lead,cadmium and selenium in children from Bytom,Poland

A study was carried out on the concentration of cadmium, lead and selenium in blood from 140 school children, aged 8–9 years, living in Bytom in the Silesian Region, an industrialized area of Poland. Concentrations of lead in blood ranged from 0.17 to 1.67 μmol Pb 1^‐1 with a median of 0.38 μmol Pb 1^‐1. Levels of cadmium in blood ranged from 2 to 22 nmol Cd 1^‐1 with a median of 4 nmol Cd 1^‐1. The values obtained were relatively low and indicated only a moderate exposure to lead and cadmium in the majority of the study population. However, 20% of the children had blood lead levels exceeding 0.48 μmol Pb 1^‐1, which is a level of concern issued by Centers for Disease Control (CDC), USA. Concentrations of selenium in blood were 0.63 to 1.40 μmol Se 1^‐1 with a median of 0.91 μmol Se 1^‐1. The activity of glutathione peroxidase (GSH‐px) was measured in whole blood in 70 of the children and correlated to selenium concentration.     

Blood lead levels of refugee children resettled in Massachusetts, 2000 to 2007

Objectives. We described elevated blood lead level (BLL; ≥ 10 μg/dL) prevalence among newly arrived refugee children in Massachusetts. We also investigated the incidence of BLL increases and BLLs newly elevated to 20 μg/dL or higher in the year following initial testing, along with associated factors.Methods. We merged data from the Massachusetts Department of Public Health''s Refugee and Immigrant Health Program and the Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program on 1148 refugee children younger than 7 years who arrived in Massachusetts from 2000 to 2007.Results. Elevated BLL prevalence was 16% among newly arrived refugee children. The rate ratio for BLL elevation to 20 μg/dL or higher after arrival was 12.3 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 6.2, 24.5) compared with children in communities the state defines as high-risk for childhood lead exposure. Residence in a census tract with older housing (median year built before 1950) was associated with a higher rate of BLL increases after resettlement (hazard ratio = 1.7; 95% CI = 1.2, 2.3).Conclusions. Refugee children are at high risk of lead exposure before and after resettlement in Massachusetts. A national surveillance system of refugee children''s BLLs following resettlement would allow more in-depth analysis.Refugee children who resettle in the United States may arrive with substantially higher blood lead levels (BLLs) than those among children in the general US population.^1,2 For recently arrived refugees, the risk of additional lead exposure after immigration may also be substantial. In 2000, a 2-year-old Sudanese refugee child died as a result of exposure to lead in her family''s New Hampshire home.³ A subsequent case series among children resettled in New Hampshire raised concerns that African refugee children may be at particularly high risk of lead exposure. In that study, 22 of 71 children (31%) who arrived without an elevated BLL (≥ 10 μg/dL) had an elevated BLL at follow-up testing, indicating new exposure to lead after immigration.²Preventing postimmigration lead exposure among refugee children is an important public health priority because of the irreversible behavioral and cognitive deficits caused by even low levels of lead exposure in early childhood.⁴ Families may be placed in housing with inherently high health risks—generally older, nonrehabilitated housing with lead exposure hazards from deteriorating paint or contaminated soil. Such families may also have difficulty accessing health care over time, so cases of lead poisoning may not be identified. To prevent lead exposure and its adverse consequences in refugee children, information regarding the sources of lead, its prevalence, and the severity of exposure is necessary.Our primary goal was to describe the risk of elevated BLLs among refugee children upon arrival in the United States and in the period following resettlement. Secondary goals were to determine whether African origin was associated with an increased risk of elevated BLL at initial and follow-up testing and whether residence in housing built prior to 1950 (after which use of lead in residential paint declined) was associated with postimmigration increases in BLL.     

Blood lead levels and risk factors for lead poisoning in children and caregivers in Chuuk State, Micronesia

Lead poisoning is a preventable environmental disease. Children and developing fetuses are especially vulnerable; even low blood lead levels (BLLs) are linked with learning and behavioral problems. We assessed children's and their caregivers' BLLs and risk factors for lead exposure in Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia. Children aged 2-6 years were randomly selected within 20 randomly selected villages. Children and caregivers provided venous blood, and caregivers offered information about possible risk factors for lead exposure. Mean BLLs were 39 microg/l for children and 16 microg/l for caregivers. Children with BLLs of > or = 100 microg/l (elevated) were 22.9 (95% CI: 4.5-116.0) times more likely to have a caregiver with an elevated BLL, 6.2 (95% CI: 1.4-27.3) times more likely to live on an outer island, and 3.4 (95% CI: 1.7-6.9) times more likely to have a family member who made lead fishing weights than did other children even after controlling for age and sex. For children, 61% of elevated BLLs could be attributed to making fishing weights. Caregivers with elevated BLLs were 5.9 (95% CI: 1.5-23.7) times more likely to live in a household that melted batteries than other caregivers even after controlling for age and education. For caregivers, 37% of the elevated BLLs could be attributed to melting batteries. The association of elevated BLLs in children and their caregiver suggests a common environmental exposure. Melting batteries to make fishing sinkers is a preventable source of lead exposure for children and their caregivers in Chuuk. Published by Elsevier GmbH.     

A survey of infertility,surgical sterility and associated reproductive disability in Perth,Western Australia

Abstract: Infertility, surgical sterility and associated reproductive disability were studied in a stratified cluster sample of 1511 couples with women aged 16 to 44 years resident in metropolitan Perth in 1988. Sixteen couples were omitted from analysis because of missing data. The proportion of couples affected by current infertility was 3.5 per cent (53 of 1 495), and 67.9 per cent of these (36 of 53) had a reproductive disability, meaning that they were unable to achieve their desired level of reproductive function. Those affected by surgical sterility accounted for 37.1 per cent (555 of 1 495), and of these couples 2.0 per cent (11 of 555) had a reproductive disability. Empirically, the prevalence of both infertility and reproductive disability peaked at ages 30 to 34 years in the female partner. Of the factors studied, infertility was associated with surgery for a ruptured appendix, a history of pelvic inflammatory disease and number of sexual partners. In 10 of the 47 couples with reproductive disability, contraceptive sterilisation had been a cause of later regret. Most other cases were due to infertility. Almost one half of couples with reproductive disability had sought treatment. The affected couples had at least one child from the current union in 23 of the 47 cases of reproductive disability. The results support the need for development of a strategy to prevent infertility and other causes of reproductive disability.     

Blood lead levels in children of S.W. Sardinia

The purpose of the present study was to make a preliminary evaluation of blood lead levels in school-aged children from three towns of southwestern Sardinia, Portoscuso, S. Antioco and Calasetta, the first of which is very close to a large industrial complex. Blood lead concentration was determined in venous blood samples by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The survey revealed that children residing in the town of Portoscuso had higher mean blood lead levels (12.7 g/dl) than children of the same age residing in S. Antioco and Calasetta (8.3 and 8.4 g/ dl respectively) and that levels were slightly higher in males than in females. This difference is suggested to be a result of the greater fallout of industrial pollutants in the area of Portoscuso.Corresponding author.     

Blood lead levels in Japanese children: Effects of passive smoking

Blood lead levels (BLLs) of 188 pediatric patients were measured and their parents were queried as to the smoking style in their home. Their mean BLL was 3.16 μg/dl, which was among the lowest levels in the world, and none of them had levels of over 10 μ g/dl. Preschool children ( 1 to 6 years of age) with parents who smoked in the same room had a significantly higher BLL (mean; 4.15 μ g/dl) than those with parents who never smoked (mean; 3.06 μ g/dl) (P<0.01). However, the mean BLL of school children (6 to 15 years of age) with parents who smoked in the same room was not significantly different from that of school children with parents who never smoked. Passive smoking caused an increase of the BLL only in preschool children in Japan. This is probably because preschool infants spend much more time with their parents and have much more contact with passive smoking than school children and, additionally young infants have a limited ability to excrete lead from the body.