Standardization of formats and presentation of fire data—the FDMS

Effective exchange of fire test data, even within a single laboratory, has been difficult due to the multiple, and often incompatible, data formats and hardware. This issue has been addressed by a careful study of user needs, leading to the development of a series of standard formats whereby fire test data could easily be exchanged among users. These formats have been made practical by the development of a computer program—the Fire Data Management System (FDMS)—and pertinent hardware standards. The system includes the most commonly used of modern-day fire test methods, but also has provisions for future extension to other tests of interest.     

Soft furnishing fires: They're still a problem

Home fires in which soft furnishings were first ignited or contributed to fire spread cause a disproportionate share of US home fire deaths. Although the death toll from these fires is much lower than in the 1980s, the rate of death per 1000 reported fires has doubled. Data from the National Fire Incident Reporting System and the National Fire Protection Association's annual Fire Experience Survey were used to create national estimates of these fires and casualties. Including both fires in which upholstered furniture was the item first ignited and contributed most to fire spread, in 2013‐2017, upholstered furniture was involved in an estimated average of 7120 (2%) home fires per year, resulting in an average of 570 (22%) deaths per year. Mattresses or bedding were involved in estimated average of 10 530 (3%) home fires per year, resulting in an average of 370 (14%) deaths annually. In most of these fires and deaths, the item was first ignited. Smoking materials were the leading cause of these fires (20%‐26%) and associated deaths (52%‐54%). Various types of operating equipment and small open flames also play a role. Understanding the causes of these fires is essential to develop new strategies to prevent them.     

阻燃型电子元件胶粘剂的难燃性能测试方法

以国标“压敏胶粘带耐燃性试验方法-悬挂法”和国标“电工电子产品着火危险试验-针焰试验方法”为基础,提出了把带状胶粘剂样品看作是一个等同的电子电工零部件、元件,从而可以将GB5169．5-85电工电子产品着火危险-针焰试验方法用于评价阻燃型电子元件胶粘剂的难燃性能。实际结果证明,如果胶粘剂的难燃性能可以通过该标准的要求,则当它被用来粘接电子电工零部件、元件时,不会降低产品的整体难燃等级。结论：这是一种符合实际使用需要的,阻燃型电子元件胶粘剂的难燃性能测试和评价方法。     

Heat release and classification of fire retardant wood products

A comparison is presented of cone calorimeter heat release data between fire retardant treated and untreated wood products. The test results show significant differences between these two groups. The parameters included in the comparison are time to ignition, rate of heat release (peak and average values) and total heat release. The wood-based products were also tested in different small-scale national standard fire tests and in the full-scale room fire test. Fire retardant wood products achieve an improved classification both in present national systems and in possible new systems based on the cone calorimeter and the room fire test.     

Australian studies on fire hazard tests for internal linings of buildings

The Australian Standard ‘Test for Early Fire Hazard Properties of Materials’ (AS 1530 Part 3, 1976) has been studied in detail as a method of assessing the fire performance of plastics wall linings under the conditions of early fire development in a room. A particular feature of the standard test is that four parameters characterizing the reaction to fire are measured concurrently. Results from the standard test have been compared to corner-wall burns involving the same parameters as in the standard test. The suitability of these parameters and the ability of the standard test to rank the behaviour of the materials in the same order as indicated by corner-wall burns is discussed. A general relationship between ignition time and flame spread was observed and is discussed as support for the concept of concurrent measurement of different reaction-to-fire parameters under the one test procedure and condition.     

Combustion behavior of upholstered furniture. Important findings,practical use,and implications

“Combustion behavior of upholstered furniture (CBUF) ‐ Fire Safety of Upholstered Furniture ‐ EUR 16477 EN” was initiated by the European Commission (EC) since a major contributor to fire deaths in Europe was upholstered furniture. The EC and the participating research partners formulated this project to provide a scientifically sound basis for a European Union Directive. The aim of the directive was to improve fire safety in Europe as well as removing barriers to trade and creating a harmonized open market for upholstered furniture. The furniture directive never came through, but the project reached a significant understanding of how furniture burns, how furniture composition affects the heat release rate, and how well or poorly different models predict full‐scale test results and the developing hazard to people. The results were published as a book and presentations were made at several conferences. This article is a summary of some of the important findings in the CBUF project. It presents guidance for the design of low flammability upholstered furniture and the extent to which small‐scale test results can be used to predict room fire behavior. It presents test procedures and experimental data. However, much of the work that has been conducted is not presented in this article. In particular, background data and reasoning are omitted or reduced in favor of the results and conclusions.     

Experimental studies of gypsum plasterboards and composite panels under fire conditions

Gypsum plasterboards are commonly used to protect the light gauge steel‐framed walls in buildings from fires. Single or multiple plasterboards can be used for this purpose, whereas recent research has proposed a composite panel with a layer of external insulation between two plasterboards. However, a good understanding of the thermal behaviour of these plasterboard panels under fire conditions is not known. Therefore, 15 small‐scale fire tests were conducted on plasterboard panels made of 13 and 16 mm plasterboards and four different types of insulations with varying thickness and density subject to standard fire conditions in AS 1530.4. Fire performance of single and multiple layers of gypsum plasterboards was assessed including the effects of interfaces between adjacent plasterboards. Effects of using external insulations such as glass fibre, rockwool and cellulose fibre were also determined. The thermal performance of composite panels developed from different insulating materials of varying densities and thicknesses was examined and compared. This paper presents the details of the fire tests conducted in this study and their valuable time–temperature data for the tested plasterboard panels. These data can be used for the purpose of developing and validating accurate thermal numerical models of these panels. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Highway vehicle fire data based on the experiences of US fire departments

In 2003–2007, US fire departments responded to an average of 267 600 highway vehicle fires per year. These fires caused an average of 441 civilian deaths, 1326 civilian injuries, and $1.0bn (in US dollars) in direct property damage annually. Highway vehicles include cars, trucks, and other vehicles designed for highway use; highway vehicle fires can occur anywhere, not just on a highway. While these fires and associated losses have been falling in recent years, highway vehicles fires accounted for 17% of reported US fires, 12% of US fire deaths, 8% of US civilian fire injuries, and 9% of the direct property damage from reported fires. Data from the US Fire Administration's National Fire Incident Reporting System and the National Fire Protection Association's fire department survey were used to provide details about the circumstances of highway vehicle fires. Mechanical or electrical failures caused roughly three‐quarters of the highway vehicle fires but only 11% of the deaths. Collisions and overturns were factors contributing to the ignition in only 3% of the fires, but fires resulting from these incidents caused 58% of these vehicle fire deaths. The rate of bus fires per billion miles driven was 3.5 times that for highway vehicle fires overall. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Screening tests for fire safety of composites for marine applications

Demands for reduced maintenance, reduced manning and reduced cost are resulting in the need for new and alternative materials for introduction in the fleet. The new materials in many cases tend to be non‐metallic and organic (combustible) materials. In order to maintain a minimum level of fire safety, the US Navy has set performance requirements for new materials in many applications. These include the use of composite materials in ships and submarines. Performance requirements for composites, in most cases, are based on full‐scale fire tests. The use of composites for structural applications in submarines is covered by MIL‐STD‐2031. The use of composites aboard US Navy ships for topside applications is now covered by Fire Safety testing criteria. The recommended fire performance criteria contain requirements for fire growth, smoke toxicity, visibility (ISO 9705), fire resistance and structural integrity under fire (UL 1709). When developing new composite systems, it is expensive to repeatedly conduct these typical full‐scale fire tests to determine the performance of the most recent design. Instead, more cost‐effective small‐scale testing is preferable to evaluate performance. To facilitate the introduction of new and modified fire tolerant materials/systems/designs, and to reduce the financial burden on small business, the US Navy has developed a low cost composite system fire screening protocol which offers the potential of predicting the full‐scale fire performance. Fire growth potential of new composite systems and designs can be screened by using small‐scale test data from cone calorimeter (ASTM E‐1354) and Lateral Ignition Flame spread Test (ASTM E‐1321) in conjunction with the Composite Fire Hazard Analysis Tool (CFHAT). The small‐scale burn‐through test (2×2 ft) was shown capable of screening fire resistance performance determined in furnace testing with a UL‐1709 fire curve. These screening techniques provide cost‐effective approaches for evaluating fire performance of new technologies, which in turn aids in the product development process. Full‐scale fire testing is still required before inclusion of products onboard US Navy submarines and surface ships. Published in 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Toxic gas and smoke measurement with the British Fire Propagation test. I: Test conditions

No standard method has been developed for measureing the evolution of specific toxic gases from building lings when involved in fire. The British Fire Propagation test (BS 476 Part 6) operated in an instrumented room has been proposed for this purpose previously but has not found general acceptance. It is considered further in this report, which investigates the movement and measurement of smoke and specific fire gases under different conditions of room stirring and the effect of the latter on fire propagation indexes. Stiring has been found to have no statistically significant effect on fire propagation indexes provided that the effects of this on calibration of the apparatus are taken into account. Stirring also had little effect upon smoke production per se. Under unstire conditions smoke and toxic gases stratify in the same layer early in the test, and measurement of their production at any single room location will be subject to the location, the way the room influences stratification and how the room is instrumentee, as well as by the prpduct performance. Under stirred room conditions smoke and toxic gases are evenly distributed and product performance can be assessed more simply from concurrent measurements of fire, smoke and toxic gas parameters. The latter procedure is proposed for obtaining relative data on building linings and for examination in further studies for correlation to room and corridor burns.     

易燃易爆危险品火灾危险性分级标准概述

危险化学品种类繁多,容易发生火灾,且一旦发生火灾难于扑救。介绍了危险化学品火灾事故的特点。危险品中的易燃气体、易燃液体、易燃固体、氧化类物质具有易燃易爆特点,属于消防监督管理的范围。介绍了易燃气体的火灾危险性参数测试标准及不同爆炸极限测试标准的特点。介绍了可燃液体的火灾危险性参数测试标准,概述了不同闪点测试标准的适用范围。概述了可燃固体、氧化类物质的火灾危险性分级标准。展望了易燃易爆危险品需开展的研究及标准的制定。     

The early fire behaviour of combustible wall lining materials

The development of the Australian Standard AS 1530 Part 3 ‘Test for Early Fire Hazard Properties of Materials’ from the study of the fire behavior of cellulosic wall linings in simulated room fires has been outlined. Similar studies for assessing a wider range of wall linings are now reported including various plastic facings applied to hardboard. Using similar parameters for ignitability, spread of flame, heat evolved and smoke developed, the behaviors of the linings in the standard test have been compared to the behavior in corner-wall burns. Two methods of ignition were used for the burns; (a) timber cribs; and (b) impressed radiant heat with a pilot flame. The results are discussed in terms of the validity of the standard test as a multi-parameter assessment of materials in a fire hazard situation. The test has been validated for the wider range of wall lining materials.     

Validation of the lumped parameter code COCOSYS against large‐scale OECD PRISME 2 fire experiments

Fire safety analysis is a major issue for nuclear power plants (NPPs) in the context of deterministic safety assessments as well as of probabilistic safety analyses. Oil reservoirs and cables represent major fire loads. Therefore, simulations of oil and cable fires are of interest for quantifying the risk of such internal hazards in NPPs. To investigate the applicability of lumped parameter (LP) modelling, validations against fire experiments are required. In this way, results obtained with the LP code COCOSYS for simulations of oil and cable fire experiments conducted in the OECD PRISME 2 Project are presented. The PRISME 2 VSP (vertical smoke propagation) tests involving oil fires in a confined and mechanically ventilated facility were used to assess the ability of the LP code to simulate smoke propagation through a horizontal opening from the fire compartment to a compartment on top of it. As it was already identified in the “International Collaborative Fire Modelling Project (ICFMP),” this type of opening might cause problems in fire simulations, particularly for zone or LP fire models. In these simulations, attention has been paid to the coupling between the fire and the surrounding environment due to the decrease of oxygen concentration. Furthermore, different cable materials have been tested in the PRISME 2 CORE (completing and repeating) test campaign. By simulating the CFS‐3 (cable fire spreading) test with confined underventilated conditions, the applicability of the COCOSYS cable fire model with input parameters deduced from open atmosphere fire tests (CORE‐2) was analysed. Results show that the applicability of a LP fire model to predict the pyrolysis rate is partly limited for both oil and cable fires, in confined environment. However, simulations with prescribed pyrolysis rates show encouraging results in good agreement with the experimental data and underline the capability of the LP code COCOSYS to simulate the interaction between the thermal hydraulics inside compartments and the fire source.     

Fire-gas hazards in rail traffic

A review is given of the various national requirements and test procedures concerning testing and classification of smoke produced in the case of a fire in rolling stock. A comparison of the various test methods is made using the relevant available literature. The toxic potency philosophy of SC3 ‘Toxic Hazard in Fire’ from ISO TC92 is used to provide a concept for assessing the possible smoke hazard in the case of a fire.     

Toxic gas and smoke assessment studies on vinyl floor covering with the fire propagation test

The Fire Propagation Test (BS 476 Part 6) has been used with the discharge of combustion products into a small test room, to provide a fire hazard assessment of some polyvinylchloride floor covering systems, and includes measurements of fire propagation, smoke, CO and HCI production. Particular attention has been given to the change in the HCI concentration of the Room atmosphere during the test and the influence of relative humidity and the nature of the surface linings of the room. The results have been discussed as a contribution to the understanding of the role of HCI in toxicity of fire atmospheres. Some approaches for improving further the reproducibility of the test method are indicated and support is given to the Japanese proposal that such a test be standardized to enable comparison of fire hazard potential of lining systems used in buildings.     

The discrepancies in energy balance in furnace testing,a bug or a feature?

The paper aims to explain the differences found in the heat release rate measurements in a large sample of standard fire tests (EN 1363-1). A total of 379 tests of vertical assemblies was investigated, all performed in furnace SPARK of the ITB Fire Testing Laboratory, in 2015-2018. The assemblies were subdivided into two groups—wall assemblies and fire-rated doors. These assemblies were also compared with the results of the test of a wall built with aerated autoclaved concrete blocks that was considered as the benchmark test. It was observed that walls built with highly insulated sandwich panels require less heat to maintain standard thermal exposure conditions (20%-30% less) than their counterparts built from gypsum plasterboard or aluminium and fire-rated glass. In case of doors, it was observed that combustible samples required significantly less heat than the benchmark case (40%-70% less), which indicates that the combustion of the sample inside of the furnace was an additional, significant source of heat release, that may skew the qualitative assessment of their performance in fire. A more in-depth discussion of the results is provided, with some ideas on the direction of further developments in fire testing.     

Empirical prediction of smoke production in the ISO Room Corner Fire Test by use of ISO Cone Calorimeter Fire Test data

The combustion conditions in the ISO Room Corner Fire Test make it possible to predict full scale smoke production by use of prediction models and bench scale fire test data procured by the ISO Cone Calorimeter Fire Test. The full scale smoke production is governed by the type of material burning only if the rate of heat release is less than 400–600 kW. For higher rates of heat release, the smoke production is more governed by the combustion conditions. The influence of the combustion conditions on the full scale smoke production reduces the possibilities of smoke prediction to materials causing flashover within 10 min in the ISO Room Corner Fire Test. The smoke to heat ratio S_Q (m²MJ) was used to compare smoke production between the scales. In general, the comparison revealed that the smoke yield was significantly less in full scale than in bench scale, especially for the plastics. Plastics do yield more smoke than wood based materials in both scales, but the differences in full scale are not as extreme as indicated by the bench scale smoke data. No simple correlations between the scales seem to exist. Multiple regression studies on empirical smoke prediction models show that bench scale fire parameters can be used to predict full scale fire performance. A quite accurate empirical smoke prediction model is presented for the group of materials which caused flashover within 10 min. The model predicts the full scale rate of smoke production at a rate of heat release of 400 kW. The presented results might be used to assess the fire safety hazard of visible smoke, but benchmarks of smoke hazard do not seem to exist. Thus further studies and agreement on safety levels and principles are needed for general visibility analysis concerning fire safety engineering purposes. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sensitivity of the Room/Corner test to variations in the test system and product properties

The effects of variations in the ISO 9705 Room/Corner Test equipment and product properties are discussed. Previous experimental results are reviewed and some new results from the EUREFIC fire research programme are reported. The effects considered include the room dimensions, the burner size, the heat output of the burner and the stand-off distance of the burner. The error in the measured peak rate of heat release caused by the finite response time of the oxygen consumption calorimeter due to mixing of the exhaust gases is analyzed in detail. The effect of material properties determined with the cone calorimeter are evaluated by employing models simulating the Room/Corner Test.     

Characterization of plastics in fire

Fire is a complex process in which temperature and oxygen concentration vary considerably. The methods of characterizing the flammability of plastics materials advocated in this paper use simple test procedures in a series of different fire environments; i.e., at different temperatures and oxygen concentrations. The limits of both flaming and smouldering combustion, flame spread, and burning define the burning behavior of materials as dynamic multivariable parameters and not as single-point data characteristics of the majority of current fire tests. The feasibility studies were based on modified oxygen index (ASTM D2863, NES 715) and Setchkin furnaces (ASTM D1929). The burning behavior of plastics may also be directly affected by their softening and viscosity characteristics, and this has been explored with relation to suspended ceilings and stacking chairs. The techniques used showed major differences between materials that may not always be seen in standard single-point tests but which have been correlated with full-scale ad hoc tests; e.g., room and corner tests, and actual product tests.     

A model to predict fire resistance of non‐load bearing wood‐stud walls

The author has developed a series of computer models to predict the fire resistance of wood‐framed walls and floors. The models utilize two‐dimensional heat‐conduction equations and thermo‐physical property data to describe heat transfer through the assemblies. The model for wall assemblies WALL2D, the basic version of the wall model, has already been published in Fire and Materials. Recently, WALL2D has been extended to WALL2DN to analyse heat transfer through insulated walls and walls that experience openings at the joints between adjacent sheets of gypsum board. Since gypsum board shrinks at high temperatures, the joints between adjacent sheets of gypsum board open. Hot fire gases, thereby, enter the openings and heat the edge of the gypsum board and wood studs. The new model WALL2DN simulates the joint opening and describes the resultant effect of openings. The model also calculates heat transfer through insulation in the stud cavity and depicts the effect of insulation on the fire resistance of non‐load bearing wall assemblies. Insulation selected in WALL2DN is glass‐fibre insulation, rock‐fibre insulation, polystyrene foam and polyurethane foam. When walls are exposed to fire, the insulation in the cavity shrinks (and/or melts) and an empty space appears at the interface between insulation and gypsum board. The model simulates this shrinking behaviour of insulation in the cavity. Finally, the model was validated by comparing the predicted results to those from full‐scale standard fire‐endurance tests. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.