Paternalistic leadership and employee voice in China: A dual process model

Drawing from social exchange and self-concept-based leadership theories, we investigate how paternalistic leadership — authoritarian, benevolent, and moral — affects employee voice from leader–member exchange (LMX) and status-judgment perspectives in the Chinese context. Data from 402 employees and their supervisors show that LMX and status-judgment mechanisms could work simultaneously in transmitting the influences of paternalistic leadership behaviors to employee voice. Authoritarian paternalistic leaders reduce employee voice by reducing their status judgment. Benevolent paternalistic leaders encourage employee voice by enhancing both LMX and status judgment. Moral paternalistic leaders positively influence employee voice mainly through LMX processes. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of the findings.     

Leader-Member Exchange across two hierarchical levels of leadership: concurrent influences on work characteristics and employee psychological health

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory suggests that the quality of the leader–employee relationship is linked to employee psychological health. Leaders who reside at different hierarchical levels have unique roles and spheres of influence and potentially affect employees' work experiences in different ways. Nevertheless, research on the impact of leadership on employee psychological health has largely viewed leaders as a homogeneous group. Expanding on LMX theory, we argue that (1) LMX sourced at the levels of the line manager (LM) and senior management (SM) team will be differentially linked to employee psychological health (assessed as worn-out) and that (2) these relationships will be mediated by perceived work characteristics (reward and recognition, workload management, quality of relationships with colleagues and physical environment). Structural equation modelling on data from 337 manual workers partially supported the hypotheses. Perceptions of the physical environment mediated the relationship between LMX at the LM level and employee psychological health, whereas perceptions of workload management mediated the relationship between LMX at the SM level and psychological health. These findings corroborate arguments that leaders are not a uniform group and as such the effects of LMX on employees will depend on leadership hierarchy. Implications for expanding leadership theory are discussed.     

Contextualizing LMX within the workgroup: The effects of LMX and justice on relationship quality and resource sharing among peers

While leader–member exchange (LMX) has evolved, a richer understanding continues to evade scholars due to the sustained focus on the leader–member dyad. We argue that LMX theory remains incomplete until contextual factors surrounding these pivotal relationships are accounted for including the impact of coworker exchange relationships, peer exchange, and perceptions of justice regarding individual LMX relationships. A fully crossed experimental design manipulating participant LMX and distributive justice and coworker LMX and distributive justice was employed to understand how these constructs affect coworker exchange relationships. Support was found for a causal model which specifies that justice moderates the causal relationship between LMX similarity and CWX, which subsequently leads to increased sharing of resources among coworkers. The data suggest that workgroup members are savvy to differences within individual leader–member relationships, where the sharing of resources among peers is determined by their own LMX, the LMX of their coworker and perceptions of justice of their respective LMX levels. These findings are contextualized in extant leadership research and practice.     

Beyond leader–member exchange (LMX) differentiation: An indigenous approach to leader–member relationship differentiation

The existing literature has established that leaders differentiate among their followers; however, the focus has long been on the Western leader–member exchange (LMX) theory. This paper examines leader–member relationship differentiation from an indigenous, leader–member guanxi (LMG) perspective. Using a sample of 60 groups and 228 employees, we examined the dual effects of LMG differentiation on employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention, and co-worker helping behavior after controlling for LMX, LMX median, and LMX differentiation. The results of this study supported the proposed dual effects of LMG differentiation, demonstrating that LMG differentiation, in general, is detrimental to employees' work attitudes and their intentions to stay in an organization. On the contrary, interestingly enough, LMG differentiation can accentuate the positive relationship between LMG and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and co-worker helping behaviors.     

Job-related resources,leader–member exchange and well-being – a longitudinal study

Studies show that high-quality reciprocal relationships between leaders and followers are positively associated with employee well-being. However, the pathways for promoting this health-enhancing leadership behaviour have not yet been well explored, and most studies have been cross-sectional. The primary objective of this study was to examine the effects of the interplay between job-related resources and leader–member exchange (LMX) on employee well-being, measured as the emotional exhaustion component of burnout. We applied a two-wave paper-and-pencil design, with an 11-month interval, in a sample of 343 employees working in the German healthcare sector. By means of structural equation modelling, we found that job-related resources (role clarity, meaningfulness and predictability) predicted higher quality LMX, which in turn related to lower levels of emotional exhaustion. The results support the important role of job resources in stimulating health-relevant aspects of leadership behaviour, and indicate ways in which leaders can promote employee health and well-being.     

Not all leader–member exchanges are created equal: Importance of leader relational identity

Recent research by leadership scholars has emphasized the important role of follower self-identity. For example, leaders influence subordinate attitudes and behaviors by activating a collective identity level among their subordinates. We extend existing identity-based approaches by examining the relational identity level of leaders. Previous work has focused predominantly on followers (vs. leaders) and on collective (vs. relational) identity. Using data from two samples, we supported our hypothesis that leader relational identity moderates relationships of leader–member exchange (LMX) with subordinate task performance and citizenship behaviors. The nature of the interaction was such that the negative relationships of low-quality LMX with performance are mitigated when subordinates had supervisors with strong relational identities. These findings highlight the need to consider not only the identities of followers but those of leaders as well.     

Differentiation in leader–member exchange: A hierarchical linear modeling approach

This paper explores possible antecedents and consequences of leader–member exchange (LMX) differentiation. LMX differentiation is a group-level construct, defined as the degree to which members working with the same leader differ in terms of their LMX relationship quality with their leader. Specifically, we hypothesize that leaders’ personal universalistic values are negatively correlated with LMX differentiation. LMX differentiation, in turn, moderates the lower-level effect that LMX has on performance evaluation. Using surveys from leaders and subordinates as well as archival data from six companies, we found support for these arguments. However, we did not find support for a hypothesized cross-level moderation effect of differentiation on the effect LMX has on interactional justice. Implications for theory and discussion of future research directions are also addressed.     

The interactive effect of leader–member exchange and electronic communication on employee psychological empowerment and work outcomes

We advance understanding of the role that leaders play in promoting psychological empowerment and positive work outcomes (job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance) for employees who engage in a high degree of electronic communication in their job. By integrating leader–member exchange (LMX) theory and theories of electronic communication, we build and test a mediated moderation model in which employees’ degree of electronic communication in their job amplifies the positive relationship that LMX has to psychological empowerment and subsequent employee work outcomes. Based on a sample of 353 early-career professionals employed in a range of different types of organizations, we found general support for the hypothesized model. We discuss the study’s theoretical and practical implications for leading employees in electronically-enabled work environments.     

Leader–member exchange and organizational dehumanization: The role of supervisor’s organizational embodiment

This research examined the negative relationship between leader–member exchange (LMX) and organizational dehumanization (i.e., employees’ perceptions that their organization treats them like tools), and specifically the consequences of this LMX–dehumanization relationship on employees’ emotional exhaustion, affective commitment, and voice behaviors. Further, given that supervisors act as representatives of the organization, we argued that these relationships would be stronger for employees identifying their supervisor with the organization (i.e., high supervisor’s organizational embodiment). Across two samples, results showed that high-quality LMX was negatively associated with organizational dehumanization. Further, organizational dehumanization was found to mediate the relationships between LMX and outcomes (i.e., emotional exhaustion, affective commitment, and voice behaviors). Finally, the mediation model was moderated by supervisor’s organizational embodiment. More specifically, the negative effects of LMX on organizational dehumanization and its subsequent outcomes were stronger when leaders were perceived as sharing many characteristics with their organization. This research expands the recent and scarce knowledge on the determinants, boundary conditions and outcomes of organizational dehumanization. Our findings suggest that interpersonal relationships at work and, in particular, very common supervisor-related perceptions should be considered when examining organizational dehumanization.     

How Leaders Affect Followers’ Work Engagement and Performance: Integrating Leader−Member Exchange and Crossover Theory

Drawing on leader?member exchange and crossover theory, this study examines how leaders’ work engagement can spread to followers, highlighting the role of leader?member exchange as an underlying explanatory process. Specifically, we investigate if leaders who are highly engaged in their work have better relationships with their followers, which in turn can explain elevated employee engagement. For this purpose, we surveyed 511 employees nested in 88 teams and their team leaders in a large service organization. Employees and supervisors provided data in this multi‐source design. Furthermore, we asked the employees to report their annual performance assessment. We tested our model using multilevel path analyses in Mplus. As hypothesized, leaders’ work engagement enhanced leader?member exchange quality, which in turn boosted employee engagement (mediation model). Moreover, employee engagement was positively linked to performance and negatively linked to turnover intentions. As such, our multilevel field study connects the dots between work engagement research and the leadership literature. We identify leaders’ work engagement as a key to positive leader?follower relationships and a means for promoting employee engagement and performance. Promoting work engagement at the managerial level may be a fruitful starting point for fostering an organizational culture of engagement.     

Daily perceptions of relationship quality with leaders: implications for follower well-being

ABSTRACT

We examined how a key relationship at work, an employee’s relationship with their leader, affects employee daily well-being. In a study of 129 employees across a variety of industries, we examined how follower perceptions of their daily leader–member exchange (LMX) quality across a workweek influenced their well-being (n?=?468 observations). Results provided general support for our hypotheses. Specifically, we found that on days when employees perceived a higher quality LMX relationship with their leader, they were more likely to report a sense of belongingness, which was then positively associated with daily reports of vigor and negatively associated with emotional exhaustion. Lagged analyses showed that perceptions of LMX quality were also negatively associated with reports of emotional exhaustion the following workday suggesting that these effects may persist over time. Finally, we found that day-to-day variation in reports of LMX quality attenuated the beneficial effects of LMX on relatedness and vigor supporting our hypothesis that uncertainty related to resource availability may contribute to a threat mindset focused on resource conservation rather than engagement. Implications and future research on leadership and employee well-being are discussed.     

When opposites do (and do not) attract: Interplay of leader and follower self-identities and its consequences for leader–member exchange

Employees' self-identities, or the ways in which they define themselves relative to others, have implications for the quality of leader and follower relationships at work. Although self-identity has been examined within the context of transformational and charismatic leadership, its relevance for leader–member exchange (LMX) has received little attention. In this study we integrate LMX and self-identity theories. Doing so proved useful because it was found that leader and follower identities predicted LMX quality, as did the fit between leader and follower identities and interactions among fit at different self-identity levels. LMX quality fully mediated relationships of self-identity fit with job performance, regardless of whether LMX was reported by subordinates or their supervisors. Lastly, we also found that self-identity predicted LMX agreement across supervisors and subordinates. Implications of our findings for theory and practice are discussed.     

A multi-level analysis of leader–member exchange and creative performance in research groups

We investigated the effects of LMX in leader and member ratings on leader and member creative performance among 137 leader–member dyads in academic and commercial R&D groups. By using the sub-dimensions of LMX-MDM (affect, loyalty, contribution, and professional respect) we wanted to show which dimensions of the leader–member relationship that is beneficial to creative performance. Analyses were conducted with consideration to nesting and dependencies occurring in the data. Findings indicated that certain sub-dimensions of exchanges between leaders and followers are substantive for creative performance in either positive or negative ways, depending on academic and commercial setting. LMX sub-dimensions were also differently related to creative performance depending on leaders' or members' perspective. The mixed results of this study indicate that LMX theory needs further analysis from a multidimensional, multitarget, and multilevel perspective.     

The moderating role of leader and follower sex in dyads on the leadership behavior–leader effectiveness relationships

Transformational leadership (TL) and leader–member exchange (LMX) literatures provide theoretical frameworks and accompanying empirical evidence for studying the relationship between leader behavior and effectiveness. Although prior attention has been given to gender differences in leadership style and leader effectiveness, the moderating effects of the sex of the leader and subordinate on the leadership–leader effectiveness relationship have not been investigated. In a field study of employees from a manufacturing plant, we examined whether leader and subordinate sex, and the sex composition of the leader–subordinate dyad, moderated the linkages of each set of leader behaviors (i.e., TL and LMX) with actual evaluations of leader effectiveness provided by the leader's subordinates and direct supervisor. Although female leaders were rated as more effective than male leaders overall, a fine-grained analysis of leader–subordinate dyads revealed that the male leaders benefited more than the female leaders from the use of transformational leadership in the leader behavior–leader effectiveness relationship. Implications and future research directions are discussed.     

Relative deprivation among employees in lower-quality leader-member exchange relationships

Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory posits that leaders develop special relationships with certain employees. By and large, prior studies have emphasized the positive aspects of LMX for employees who have high-quality exchange relationships with their supervisors (e.g., higher job satisfaction, career success). However, given the benefits that tend to accrue to employees in high-quality exchange relationships, workers who have relatively low-quality exchange relationships with their supervisors are likely to be frustrated when they compare their situation to that of their peers. Using the framework outlined by relative deprivation theory, this paper develops a theoretical model identifying when employees with relatively low-quality LMX relationships are most likely to feel aggrieved. In addition, this paper discusses the factors that may determine how employees respond to feelings of relative deprivation that arise from their LMX relationships. Directions for future research that empirically examines some of these propositions are discussed as well.     

Leader–member exchange (LMX), job autonomy,and creative work involvement

Researchers have claimed that high quality of supervisor–employee relationships (i.e., leader–member exchange; LMX) fosters creativity at work. Moreover, researchers have acknowledged that this relationship is not clear-cut but rather complex. The present study focused on the moderating role of job autonomy in the LMX-creative work involvement relationship. Longitudinal field survey data (N = 144) collected in a high-technology firm revealed a positive association between LMX and creative work involvement and confirmed our assumptions on the moderating role of job autonomy. The positive relationship between LMX and creative work involvement was stronger when employees experienced greater job autonomy. Our findings point to the importance of considering the interplay of both, the leader–member relationship and job design issues for increasing employees' creative work involvement.     

Relational schemas as sources of evaluation and misevaluation of leader–member exchanges: Some initial evidence

We investigated whether dyad members' relational schemas, a cognitive representation of exchange experiences, would affect how leaders and members evaluate and misevaluate the quality of their exchange relationships. Based on data derived from repertory grid technique and two waves of survey data, we found that leaders and members tended to form different relational schemas of their partners. While leaders developed LMX schemas focusing on work-related issues, members' schemas focused more on interpersonal concerns. These findings confirmed that the different schemas employed by each party affect how they stored, retrieved and (mis)evaluated their LMX experiences with each other. Implications for theory and practice, limitations of this study, and future research directions are discussed.     

Outcome favorability in the link between leader–member exchange and organizational citizenship behavior: Procedural fairness climate matters

The study developed an integrated model of the relationship among leader–member exchange (LMX), outcome favorability, procedural fairness climate and employee organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Using three-phrase multilevel data from multiple sources collected from 238 employees working with 42 supervisors at manufacturing firms in China, we found that (1) LMX was positively related to outcome favorability and OCB, (2) procedural fairness climate moderated the relationship between outcome favorability and OCB, and (3) the indirect effect of LMX on OCB (via outcome favorability) was stronger when procedural fairness climate was high rather than low. The study provides insight on the LMX–OCB relationship and the integration of LMX and fairness research.     

Perceptions of and reactions to leader toxicity: Do leader–follower relationships and identification with victim matter?

This experimental study examined the influence of leader–follower relationships (i.e., LMX) and target salience on perceptions of leader toxicity and intentions to challenge the leader. There are no studies that evaluate the effect of leader–follower relationships on these two variables. Participants (n = 298) with work experience viewed a video of a leader acting in a destructive manner toward a target. As predicted, LMX out-group participants perceived the leader to be toxic to a greater extent than participants with favored status, and indicated greater intent to challenge the leader. With regard to target salience, the results also showed that observers perceived the leader to be toxic to a greater extent when the leader was targeting someone in their LMX grouping, but there were no significant differences in challenging intentions based on the target's LMX status. Implications for leaders, followers, and organizations are discussed.     

Investigating the Moderating Effects of Leader–Member Exchange in the Psychological Contract Breach–Employee Performance Relationship: A Test of Two Competing Perspectives

Leader–member exchange (LMX) has been characterized as a form of social support capable of buffering the effects of negative work experiences. However, employees with high‐quality relationships with leaders in the organization may have stronger negative reactions when psychological contracts are breached. Thus, while a social support perspective would suggest that LMX minimizes the adverse impact of psychological contract breach on employee performance, a betrayal perspective proposes that high LMX would aggravate the negative effects. Using cross‐sectional and longitudinal research designs, results across three samples provided support for the betrayal perspective. That is, breach had a stronger negative relationship with organizational citizenship behaviours and in‐role performance under conditions of high LMX. Implications of these results and future research directions are discussed.