Recognition of fasting or overall hyperglycaemia when starting insulin treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes in general practice

OBJECTIVE: The efficacy of various regimens of initial insulin treatment in poorly controlled type 2 diabetes was compared with regard to diurnal glucose variation. DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial. Setting. Insulin therapy initiated on hospital wards, follow-up as outpatients for 12 months. SUBJECTS: Fifty-two type 2 diabetic patients (HbA1c >7.5%, mean 9.8%) on maximal oral therapy. Interventions. Insulin only (IO), bedtime insulin with sulphonylurea (glipizide) (IS), or bedtime insulin with metformin (IM). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: HbA1c and body weight. RESULTS: HbA1c decreased on average by 1.8, 1.0 and 1.5 percentage points in the IO, IS, and IM groups, respectively (p always <0.025). Body weight increased, most in the IO patients (+6.2 kg), least in the IM patients (+3.4 kg). Analysing all treatment groups combined, a similar HbA1c reduction was observed in patients with overall hyperglycaemia (low fasting plasma glucose/HbA1c ratio) and in patients with fasting hyperglycaemia (high fasting plasma glucose/HbA1c ratio). Within the overall hyperglycaemia group, the IS and IM patients had smaller decreases in HbA1c (-1.5 and -1.3 percentage points, respectively) than the IO patients (-2.7 percentage points). On the other hand, within the fasting hyperglycaemia group HbA1c reductions were -1.2, -0.8 and -1.5 percentage points, in the IO, IS, and IM groups, respectively. CONCLUSION: Not all poorly controlled type 2 diabetic patients should automatically be treated with an oral agent and bedtime insulin. Two daily insulin injections is a valid choice, particularly if the patient has overall hyperglycaemia.     

Prevalence of comorbidity in primary care patients with type 2 diabetes and its association with elevated HbA1c: A cross-sectional study in Croatia

Objective To the authors’ knowledge, there are few valid data that describe the prevalence of comorbidity in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients seen in family practice. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of comorbidities and their association with elevated (≥?7.0%) haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) using a large sample of T2DM patients from primary care practices. Design A cross-sectional study in which multivariate logistic regression was applied to explore the association of comorbidities with elevated HbA1c. Setting Primary care practices in Croatia. Subjects Altogether, 10 264 patients with diabetes in 449 practices. Main outcome measures Comorbidities and elevated HbA1c. Results In total 7979 (77.7%) participants had comorbidity. The mean number of comorbidities was 1.6 (SD 1.28). Diseases of the circulatory system were the most common (7157, 69.7%), followed by endocrine and metabolic diseases (3093, 30.1%), and diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue (1437, 14.0%). After adjustment for age and sex, the number of comorbidities was significantly associated with HbA1c. The higher the number of comorbidities, the lower the HbA1c. The prevalence of physicians’ inertia was statistically significantly and negatively associated with the number of comorbidities (Mann–Whitney U test, Z?=?–12.34; p?Conclusion There is a high prevalence of comorbidity among T2DM patients in primary care. A negative association of number of comorbidities and HbA1c is probably moderated by physicians’ inertia in treatment of T2DM strictly according to guidelines.

• Key points

• There is a high prevalence of comorbidity among T2DM patients in primary care.

• Patients with breast cancer, obese patients, and those with dyslipidaemia and ischaemic heart disease were more likely to have increased HbA1c.

• The higher the number of comorbidities, the lower the HbA1c.

     

General effect on high-risk persons when general practitioners are trained in intensive treatment of type 2 diabetes

Objective

Within the frame of a randomized clinical trial to examine whether training of general practitioners (the intervention group) in intensive lifestyle modification and pharmacological treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes has a spillover effect on individuals with impaired fasting glycaemia (IFG) or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT).

Design

A high-risk screening study for type 2 diabetes with an intervention programme, where general practices were randomized to provide standard treatment versus intensive lifestyle modification and pharmacological treatment to newly diagnosed diabetic patients.

Setting

General practices in Denmark.

Subjects

Of 1821 individuals identified with IFG or IGT, results from oral glucose tolerance tests after one and three years were available in 1510 individuals.

Main outcome measures

Progression rates from IFG and IGT to diabetes and effect of intervention were estimated in a regression model using interval censoring.

Results

A total of 442 persons developed diabetes. There was no significant overall effect of intervention on progression rates. For risk factors, no difference in rate of change was found between randomization groups, but a difference was found between general practices within the same randomization groups.

Conclusion

General practitioners identify a high number of incident diabetes cases in individuals with IFG or IGT found by high-risk screening. Intervention at the general practitioner''s level in intensive treatment type 2 diabetes does not have a significant spillover effect reducing the risk of diabetes from pre-diabetic conditions. This could indicate that intervention strategies should be specifically targeted at individuals with IFG or IGT, either by training general practitioners or directly at the individual level.     

Effects of a cinnamon extract on plasma glucose, HbA, and serum lipids in diabetes mellitus type 2

BACKGROUND: According to previous studies, cinnamon may have a positive effect on the glycaemic control and the lipid profile in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2. The aim of this trial was to determine whether an aqueous cinnamon purified extract improves glycated haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), fasting plasma glucose, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and triacylglycerol concentrations in patients with type 2 diabetes. METHODS: A total of 79 patients with diagnosed diabetes mellitus type 2 not on insulin therapy but treated with oral antidiabetics or diet were randomly assigned to take either a cinnamon extract or a placebo capsule three times a day for 4 months in a double-blind study. The amount of aqueous cinnamon extract corresponded to 3 g of cinnamon powder per day. RESULTS: The mean absolute and percentage differences between the pre- and post-intervention fasting plasma glucose level of the cinnamon and placebo groups were significantly different. There was a significantly higher reduction in the cinnamon group (10.3%) than in the placebo group (3.4%). No significant intragroup or intergroup differences were observed regarding HbA1c, lipid profiles or differences between the pre- and postintervention levels of these variables. The decrease in plasma glucose correlated significantly with the baseline concentrations, indicating that subjects with a higher initial plasma glucose level may benefit more from cinnamon intake. No adverse effects were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The cinnamon extract seems to have a moderate effect in reducing fasting plasma glucose concentrations in diabetic patients with poor glycaemic control.     

Acute hyperglycaemia induces an inflammatory response in young patients with type 1 diabetes

Background. Patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) are at a substantially increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Stress-induced hyperglycaemia in turn is shown to worsen the prognosis of patients suffering from an acute myocardial infarction. However, the mechanisms behind these findings are incompletely known.

Aim. To investigate whether markers of chronic inflammation, and oxidative stress respond to acute hyperglycaemia in patients with T1D.

Methods. The plasma glucose concentration was rapidly raised from 5 to 15 mmol/L in 35 males (22 men with T1D and 13 age-matched non-diabetic volunteers) and maintained for 2 h. All participants were young non-smokers without any signs of diabetic or other complications. Markers of chronic inflammation, and oxidative stress were analysed in serum/plasma samples drawn at base-line and after 120 min of hyperglycaemia.

Results. Compared to normoglycaemia, acute hyperglycaemia increased the interleukin (IL)-6 concentrations by 39% in patients with T1D (P<0.01) and 26% in healthy volunteers (P<0.05). During hyperglycaemia the superoxide dismutase concentration was increased by 17% in the healthy volunteers (P<0.01) and 5% in the patients with type 1 diabetes (P=NS). The increase in tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α was larger in patients with type 1 diabetes than in non-diabetic volunteers (35% versus ?10%, P<0.05).

Conclusions. This study shows that acute hyperglycaemia induces an inflammatory response in patients with type 1 diabetes.     

HbA1c对糖调节受损和2型糖尿病的诊断价值

摘要：目的：评估糖化血红蛋白（HbA1c）不同cut off值诊断2型糖尿病（T2DM）的效能,初步探讨美国糖尿病协会（ADA）推荐的HbA1c诊断T2DM及T2DM前期标准对中国人的适用性。 方法：招募接受口服葡萄糖耐量（OGTT）试验且试验前未诊治为T2DM的志愿者338例,用高效液相色谱法检测HbA1c;以WHO标准诊断糖调节受损（IGR）、糖耐量正常和T2DM;用受试者工作特征（ROC）曲线分析不同 cut off值HbA1c诊断IGR和T2DM的效能。 结果：HbA1c在诊断T2DM时,ROC曲线下面积（AUC^ROC）为0.954,最佳cut off值为6.0%,敏感性为92.5%,特异性为86.0%;当HbA1c为6.5%时,敏感性为64.8%,特异性为96.7%;当HbA1c为5.6%时,诊断T2DM阴性预测值为100.0%;HbA1c诊断IGR的AUC^ROC为0.653。 结论: HbA1c用于IGR的诊断效能不高;HbA1c诊断T2DM最佳cut off值为6.0%,此界值诊断敏感性较FPG高,但特异性较差;ADA推荐用于T2DM诊断的cut off值6.5%主要考虑到诊断的特异性,该诊断标准适用于中国人群。     

居家2型糖尿病患者空腹血糖达标影响因素分析

目的 分析影响居家2型糖尿病患者空腹血糖达标的因素.方法 通过电话随访328例2型糖尿病患者,对研究因素进行单因素及多因素Logistic回归分析.结果 年龄和入组时空腹血糖值是2型糖尿病患者空腹血糖达标的危险因素,48周内复诊次数、服药依从性和接受医生电话随访次数是保护因素.结论 居家2型糖尿病患者空腹血糖达标受年龄...     

不同比例抗阻-有氧联合训练对2型糖尿病患者降糖作用的观察

目的观察不同比例抗阻-有氧联合训练对2型糖尿病患者降糖的作用,为2型糖尿病患者训练提供最佳方案。方法将42例2型糖尿病患者平均分为高抗-有氧联合训练组16例(A组)、低抗-有氧联合训练组16例(B组)、空白对照组10例(C组)。三组患者均予相同的降糖、降脂等基础治疗,疗程均为8周。在训练前后分别进行口服葡萄糖耐量试验评价空腹血糖(FBG)、餐后两小时血糖(2h PBG)、糖化血红蛋白(Hb A1c)水平及胰岛素敏感性(ISI)等指标。结果三组患者治疗前各项指标比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。疗程结束后,A、B两组患者的FBG、2h PBG、Hb A1c及ISI水平较C组均出现好转,差异有统计学意义(P0.05);与A组相比,B组患者在改善FBG、2h PBG、Hb A1c及ISI水平方面更加显著(P0.05)。结论高抗-有氧联合训练及低抗-有氧联合训练都可以有效改善2型糖尿病患者的血糖水平和胰岛素敏感性的作用,但低抗-有氧联合训练对于改善胰岛素敏感性治疗效果要优于高抗-有氧联合训练。     

2型糖尿病患者糖化白蛋白/糖化血红蛋白比值与动态血糖参数的相关性分析

目的 探讨糖化白蛋白/糖化血红蛋白比值（GA/HbA1c）与2型糖尿病（T2DM）患者动态血糖参数间的相关性。 方法 筛选2020年1月至2021年12月期间首次就诊于复旦大学附属中山医院内分泌科的T2DM患者。收集其一般临床资料，包括患者的血压、体重指数、生化指标、空腹血糖(FBG)、空腹C肽、精氨酸激发后的C肽，HbA1c、GA等。每例患者入院后佩戴扫描式血糖监测仪，截取每例患者入院后第3到5天的72小时的血糖结果，以此计算平均血糖、平均血糖波动幅度(MAGE)、最高及最低血糖差（△BG），以及血糖在目标范围的时间（TIR）、血糖高于目标范围时间（TAR）、血糖低于目标范围时间（TBR）。采用SPSS17.0统计学软件进行数据分析。 结果 共100例T2DM患者入选，其中男58例，女42例。以GA/HbA1c比值三分位数分组。随GA/HbA1c比值升高，激发后C肽值呈逐渐降低趋势(P趋势<0.05)，MAGE、FBG、△BG呈逐步升高趋势(P趋势<0.05)。Pearson相关分析/Spearman秩相关分析显示，GA/HbA1c比值与空腹C肽、激发后C肽水和TIR平呈负相关(P<0.01)，与FBG、MAGE、△BG呈正相关(P<0.05)。与并发症个数无相关性。多元线性回归分析显示，GA/HbA1c比值与MAGE、△BG、TIR 独立相关(P<0.05)。Logistic回归分析显示，GA/HbA1c比值与TIR（OR=6.990，95% CI 2.179~22.423，P<0.01）是否达标独立相关。 结论 GA/HbA1c比值与T2DM患者的残余胰岛β细胞功能相关，与血糖波动参数MAGE、△BG、TIR独立相关。该比值是评估胰岛功能、监测血糖波动及考察血糖达标的敏感指标。     

Rationale for treatment options for mealtime glucose control in patients with type 2 diabetes

While glycemic control is routinely assessed using HbA1c and fasting glucose measures, postprandial glucose (PPG) is also an important contributor of overall glycemia. Furthermore, PPG excursions have been linked to complications of diabetes. This review examines the effects of glucose-lowering therapies (including treatments administered at mealtime) on postprandial hyperglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes. A PubMed search was conducted to identify clinical studies of treatments for mealtime glucose control in type 2 diabetes. Different treatments may have comparable effects on HbA1c but varying effects on PPG control and glucose fluctuations. Older classes of oral glucose-lowering treatments administered at mealtime to lower PPG include meglitinides and α-glucosidase inhibitors. Injectable therapies, including prandial insulin analogs, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs), and the amylin analog pramlintide, all effectively target postprandial hyperglycemia. Compared with longer-acting GLP-1RAs, short-acting GLP-1RAs, such as exenatide twice daily and lixisenatide once daily, have a greater effect on PPG control, which is primarily mediated by a more pronounced effect on delayed gastric emptying. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors also reduce postprandial hyperglycemia. To achieve more physiologically normal glycemic control, choice of therapy should ideally aim to address daily glucose fluctuations, including hyperglycemic peaks and hypoglycemic troughs, and long-term glycemic control.     

A follow-up study of the occurrence and consequences of HbA1c measurements in an unselected cohort of non-pharmacologically treated patients with Type 2 diabetes

Objectives

To describe the occurrence of HbA1c measurements among non-pharmacologically treated diabetes patients, and to evaluate whether poor blood glucose regulation (HbA1c >8%) prompted intensification of treatment.

Method

Data from the National Health Service Registry, the Regional Laboratory Database and the Danish National Hospital Registry were collected from 2002 to 2004 to identify and describe all Type 2 diabetic patients above 40 years of age in a background population of nearly 660 000 citizens in Aarhus County, corresponding to 12% of the total Danish population.

Results

A total of 1989 had at least one HbA1c measurement, whereas 484 (20%) had no HbA1c measurement at all in 2003. Most patients had an HbA1c of less than 8%, and for 820 (41%) HbA1c was less than 6.5%, but for 316 (16%) patients, the first HbA1c measurement in 2003 was above 8%. After 6 months, patients with HbA1c above 8% had a higher probability of initiating pharmacological treatment (M; 0.64; 95% CI 0.58–0.70) (F; 0.68; 95% CI 0.58–0.77) than patients with HbA1c below 8% (M; 0.12; 95% CI 0.10–0.14) (F; 0.11; 95% CI 0.09–0.14).

Conclusion

This study indicates that poor blood glucose regulation (HbA1c >8%) prompted a shift from non-pharmacological treatment to pharmacological treatment for most patients. However, a substantial group of patients are either not monitored on a regular basis or, if monitored, their elevated measurements of HbA1c do not prompt initiation of pharmacological treatment.     

Glycaemic control is essential for effective cardiovascular risk reduction across the type 2 diabetes continuum

The growing prevalence of diabetes, an established risk factor for cardiovascular disease, threatens to significantly increase the global burden of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The risk of cardiovascular mortality is substantially higher in individuals with early glucose intolerance than in those with normal glucose levels and the pathological changes in vascular function begin many years before the diagnosis of overt type 2 diabetes. Postprandial hyperglycaemia is particularly deleterious to vascular function, and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) – but not impaired fasting glucose – and may be an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease throughout the glucose intolerance continuum. Evidence that molecular mechanisms induced by postprandial hyperglycaemia contribute to vascular damage has further highlighted the importance of targeting this component of the metabolic syndrome. Indeed, clinical trials have failed to convincingly show that interventions targeting fasting hyperglycaemia significantly reduce diabetes‐associated cardiovascular risk. It may be necessary to refocus therapy to target postprandial hyperglycaemia to effectively reduce cardiovascular risk in the diabetic population. There is now direct evidence that pharmacological intervention, in the form of acarbose, to reduce postprandial hyperglycaemia, can significantly decrease the risk of cardiovascular events in individuals with IGT or type 2 diabetes.     

Insulin secretion and sensitivity as determinants of HbA1c in type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND: Defects in insulin secretion and sensitivity, two major determinants of glycaemic control, can occur and progress or not in parallel. The present study was designed to compare the respective roles of both determinants on HbA1c, in type 2 diabetic patients, according to whether or not residual beta-cell function was stimulated with insulin secretagogues. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity were both estimated using the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA). HbA1c, insulin sensitivity (HOMA2%S) and insulin secretion (HOMA2%B) were determined in 289 noninsulin-using type 2 diabetic patients who were further divided into two groups according to treatment: metformin alone (group I, n = 57) or metformin and glyburide (group II, n = 232). The patients of both groups were further divided into three subsets in order to test the dependence of HbA1c on HOMA2%B and HOMA2%S. RESULTS: In group I mean HbA1c were greater (8.4%) in patients with HOMA2%B < 50% than in the two subsets with HOMA2%B > or = 50%: 7.2 and 6.8% (P = 0.0013). In group II mean values of stimulated-insulin secretion (HOMA2%B) were lesser (40.7 and 30.1%) in the two subsets of patients with HbA1c > or = 8% than in patients with HbA1c < 8%: 55.1% (P < 0.0001). By contrast, we found no differences in both groups with HOMA2%S. A stepwise multiple regression showed that HOMA2%B contributed to HbA1c more than HOMA2%S both in groups I (33.5% vs. 23.4%) and II (22.7% vs. 8%). CONCLUSIONS: Although the role of insulin sensitivity is not negligible, insulin secretion appears to be the major determinant of diabetic control in overt type 2 diabetic patients who are treated with metformin alone or with a two-drug therapy combining metformin and glyburide.     

2型糖尿病患者糖尿病饮食知识掌握现状及其对糖化血红蛋白的影响

目的调查2型糖尿病(T2DM)患者糖尿病饮食知识的掌握现状,并探索其饮食知识对糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)的影响。方法采用一般资料调查表和糖尿病饮食知识问卷,调查苏州地区的205例T2DM患者糖尿病饮食知识的掌握情况及对HbA1c的影响。结果患者糖尿病饮食知识掌握不十分理想,文化程度低者尤甚,约75%的患者知识得分不达标;而高中以上学历的人群学习能力较强,得分较高,75%左右达标。糖尿病饮食知识对有药物降糖治疗患者的HbA1c产生了影响(P0.05)。结论 T2DM患者的糖尿病饮食知识水平不一,应针对不同的人群采取个性化的健康教育。     

Effects of changeover from voglibose to acarbose on postprandial triglycerides in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients

Introduction  In this study, we examined the effects of the α-glucosidase inhibitors acarbose and voglibose on postprandial plasma glucose and serum triglyceride levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Methods  Twenty-one Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes were enrolled in this study. Subjects had been treated with voglibose for at least 3 months. They underwent a 400 kcal balanced food meal tolerance test before and 8 weeks after the changeover from voglibose to acarbose. Subjects were divided into two groups: the first group (low-dose group; n=11) was changed over from 0.6 mg/day voglibose to 150 mg/day acarbose, and the other (high-dose group; n=10) from 0.9 mg/day voglibose to 300 mg/day acarbose. Results  The increment rate of postprandial plasma glucose ([plasma glucose 2 hours after test meal - fasting glucose]/fasting glucose) decreased from 34.7%±23.9% to 25.0%±24.6% (P=0.13) in the low-dose group, and decreased significantly from 56.1%±53.1% to 31.5%±36.0% (P=0.03) in the high-dose group after changeover. However, there were no significant changes in blood glycated hemoglobin (HbA_1c) levels before and after changeover in either group. The increment rate of postprandial serum triglyceride (TG) ([serum TG 2 hours after test meal - fasting TG]/fasting TG) decreased significantly only in the high-dose group (52.4%±60.0% to 24.3%±16.6%) (P=0.05). No significant changes in serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were observed in either group, whereas serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels decreased significantly from 3.20±0.25 to 2.65±0.18 mmol/L (P=0.04), only in the highdose group. Conclusions  In patients with type 2 diabetes our findings suggest that acarbose 300 mg/day is superior to voglibose 0.9 mg/day in improving postprandial hyperglycemia and hypertriglyceridemia.