山东中更新世以来冰碛年龄、雪线高程与气候演化——以蒙山、崂山为例

古雪线直接反映了冰期时的气候特征,因此雪线是古冰川研究最终要解决的问题。2017年笔者等基于蒙山雪线的初步研究,发现东亚地区存在的雪线低洼区,采用了东亚冷槽的概念来表述该槽状雪线低洼区,并初步绘制了东亚冷槽的雪线高程。本文主要介绍了山东段(蒙山-崂山)的研究情况。根据山东蒙山、崂山34个光释光、宇生核素等方法获得的冰碛年龄数据及对应冰期雪线高程研究,表明崂山的雪线比蒙山要低,且在MIS6之前的冰期,崂山东侧冰碛多被现代海面淹没。研究表明,我国东部的气候敏感度要明显强于西部高原区,冰期时强劲的北路寒潮是我国东部地区冰川形成的核心气候因素。     

Planation surfaces on the Tibet Plateau, China

A planation hypothesis is proposed to explain landform evolution of the Tibet Plateau. A denudation threshold （T）, the maximum potential denudation rate for a certain type of rock, is introduced to explain the combined effects of lithology and tectonics on landform evolution. If the tectonic uplifting rate （U） is equal to or less than the threshold rate （U ≤ T）, the tectonic uplifting and terrain denudation are in dynamic equilibrium, and landforms are in a steady state. The end product should be planation surfaces whether the original landforms are flat plains or deeply dissected mountains. If U 〉 T, uplift and denudation are not able to reach a dynamic equilibrium state. The plateau surface is mostly underlain by soft rocks, such as the Mesozoic epimetamorphic argillites and Tertiary sedimentary rocks, while the mountain ranges comprise hard rocks, such as granite, gneiss and limestone. In soft rock regions, hills are low with a relative relief of mostly less than 100 m and the slopes are gentle at a gradient of 〈200. In contrast, hills can maintain steep slopes in hard rock regions. The Tibet Plateau has been under an equilibrium condition between tectonic uplifting and denudation except for the mountain ranges. The plateau might have reached the present altitudes before the Quaternary.     

西藏高原积雪覆盖空间分布及地形影响

利用2000-2014年MOD10A2积雪产品和数字高程模型DEM数据,以积雪覆盖率为指标,在分析西藏高原积雪空间分布特点的基础上,定量研究了高程、坡度和坡向等地形要素对高原积雪时空分布的影响。主要结论有：① 西藏高原积雪的空间分布差异显著,具有中东部念青唐古拉山和周边高山积雪丰富,覆盖率高,而南部河谷和羌塘高原中西部积雪少,覆盖率低的特点。② 海拔越高积雪覆盖率越高,积雪持续时间越长,年内变化越稳定。海拔2 km以下积雪覆盖率不足4%,海拔6 km以上覆盖率达75%。海拔4 km以下年内积雪覆盖呈单峰型分布特点,海拔越高,单峰型越明显;而海拔4 km以上则为双峰型,海拔越高,双峰型越明显。海拔6 km以下积雪覆盖率最低值出现在夏季,而6 km以上则出现在冬季。③ 总体上,高原地形坡度越高积雪覆盖率越高。不同坡向中,北坡积雪覆盖率最高,南坡最低,年内分布呈双峰型,而无坡向的平地积雪覆盖率要小于有坡向的山地,其年内变化呈单峰型分布特点。     

STREAMFLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EASTERN QINGHAI-XIZANG PLATEAU

The eastern Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau is the headwater area for many large Asian rivers. Permafrost occurs above 4,200 m a.s.l. and glaciers occupy the summits and high valleys of the east-west trending mountain chains. Annual runoff generally increases with precipitation which is augmented southward by the rise in topography. Rainfall, snow melt, glacier melt and groundwater are the primary sources of stream flow, and the presence of permafrost enhances the flashiness of runoff response to rainfall and snowmelt events. Peak flows are concentrated between June and September. And winter is low flow season. Three types of runoff patterns may be distinguished according to their primary sources of water supply: snowmelt and rainfall, glacier melt and snowmelt, and groundwater. Large rivers generally drain more than one environments and their runoff regime reflects an integration of the various flow patterns on the plateau.     

南北地震带现今应变特征及地震危险性分析

基于1999～2007期、2009～2013期及2013～2016期GPS速度场数据,利用最小二乘配置方法解算南北地震带附近区域应变率参数,对比应变率变化并分析变化原因。结合研究时段内M_W6.0以上地震的震中分布,分析应变率参数与地震分布的相关关系;再结合地震地质,分析研究区内主要断层的地震危险性。结果显示,青藏高原近期存在加速扩展特征,其东北缘存在明显的介质性质横向不均匀特征,M_W6.0以上地震与应变率的大小存在相关关系;研究区内的地震危险区分别为祁连山中段危险区、玛沁-玛曲危险区、安宁河-小江断裂系危险区及红河断裂带中南段危险区。     

Progress in studies on geographical environments of the Qinghai-Xiang plateau

The Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau area was subjected to twice uplift and planation in the Tertiary. Intense uplifting of the plateau area has given rise to drastic changes and differentiation of physical environment on the plateau and the surrounding area since 3.4 Ma B.P. Significant environmental changes with dry tendency in interior of the plateau had occurred during the last 150 ka B.P. By comparative study on several mountains of the plateau, two systems of the structure-type of the altitudinal belt are identified and nine groups are subdivided. A distribution model with close relevance to highland uplift effect has been generalized. A number of striking geo-ecological phenomen and their spatial pattern such as moisture corridor, dry valleys, high-cold meadow zone, and high-cold arid core area are investigated and discussed. Based on the thermal conditions, moisture regimes and variation in landforms of the plateau is sequentially demarcated. A tentative scheme of 2 temperature belts, 10 natural zones and 28 physical districts has been proposed not including southern slopes of the East Himalayas. The Qinghai-Xizang Plateau is sensitive to “green house effect”, showing close relation with global change. Characteristics of temperature and precipitation on the plateau during the last 2000 years, and response of glaciers, snow deposit and permafrost on the plateau to global change are dealt with in the present paper. Under the auspices of Chinese National Key Project for Basic Research (G1998040800) and CAS project on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau (KZ951 - A1 - 204, KZ95T - 06)     

青藏块体北部构造形变与玉门5.9级地震

依据GPS观测的青藏块体内部的水平运动以及跨断层形变观测结果的总体异常特征，对昆仑山口西8．1级地震引起的近期地壳运动变化特征进行了分析。结合中国西部的受力环境，讨论了青藏块体内部不同断裂带力学上的相互关联。认为2002年12月14日玉门5．9级地震与昆仑山口西8．1级地震之间存在着构造和力学上的内在联系，它可能是在昆仑山口西8．1级地震的影响下，青藏块体北缘地区相关构造局部应力场适应性调整的产物。     

西藏一江两河地区人口分布与地形要素关系分析

地形条件是影响区域人口分布的最基本的因素之一,本文基于1 km×1 km人口空间分布公里网格数据定量分析一江两河地区人口分布基本特征及其与高程、坡度、坡向、地形起伏度等地形要素之间的关系,有助于揭示西藏高原人口分布现状的本质、理解人口空间分布结构特征,对于今后宜居地选址、改善农牧民人居环境、制定区域经济发展政策,促进区域内人口、资源与环境可持续发展具有重要意义。研究结果表明：① 一江两河地区90%的区域人口密度不足10人/km²,80%的人口分布在不足5%的土地上,人口分布比较集中。当前一江两河地区有2个主要的人口集中区,分别是拉萨市城关区和日喀则地区日喀则市,拉萨市城关区尤其显著。② 一江两河地区人口沿河分布,80.46%的人口居住在距离河流10 km以内区域,人口总数、人口密度与距河流距离呈明显的指数关系,距离河流2 km以内的区域人口密度高于50人/km²;③ 近99%的人口分布在海拔4500 m以下,当高程超过3800 m时,人口密度随海拔升高呈下降趋势;④ 近70%的人口分布在坡度小于15°的区域,而且随着坡度越大,人口密度越小,人口分布受坡向的影响不明显;⑤ 地形起伏度对人口分布的影响显著,近85%的人口分布在地形起伏度小于800 m的区域,人口密度与地形起伏度之间为倒指数关系。     

Study on dynamic numerical simulation of mountain system in tibet plateau

Tibet Plateau in mountain system is becoming one of the focuses of global technique research, because its crust is marvelous thick, which is twice of the normal thickness of mountain system in lithosphere, and its rapid raise from the Quaternary.By using a finite element analysis software ABAQUS,the numeric analysis has been carried out and presented in this paper for the lithosphere stress field.It is the first time to use the displacement loading in the simulation of Tibet Plateau. During the analysis,the deformed elements are used to simulate the structure band, and friction mechanism is used to model the fracture band. The boundary conditions are given according to the boundary displacements around the Plateau. The stress and displacement distributions are obtained for the geological evolution of the plateau, which are consistent with P axial orientations of the seismic origin mechanism and the measures principle stress orientations. The analysis is also given for the dynamic lithosphere evolution of the Mountain System in the Tibet Plateau.     

PRESENT-DAY CRUSTAL MOVEMENT OF NORTH-EASTERN QINGHAI-TIBET PLATEAU

1　IntroductionEnclosedbyBayankalablockatsouth ,Alashanblockatnorth ,Tarimblockatwest,OrdosatnortheastandSouthChinablocksateast,thenorth easternQinghai Tibetanplateau ,geologicallynamedasQilianblockanditsadjacentarea ,isanidealre gionforstudyingcontinentaldynamics,suchascrustalthickening ,extrusionandblockinteraction(Fig .1 ) .ThetectonicmovementsofnortheasternQinghai Tibetanplateau ,thestrongnappe (thrust ing)movementofnorthernQilianmountainandtheextensiveleft lateralslipalongQilian Hai…     

SNOW COVER MONITORING BY REMOTE SENSING AND SNOWMELT RUNOFF CALCULATION IN THE UPPER HUANGHE RIVER BASIN

The upper Huanghe(Yellow) River basin is situated in the northeast of the Qinghai-Xizang(Tibet)Plateau of China.The melt-water from the snow-cover is main water supply for the rivers in the region during springtime and other arid regions of the northwestern China, and the hydrological conditions of the rivers are directly controlled by the snowmelt water in spring .So snowmelt runoff forecast has importance for hydropower,flood prevention and water resources utilize-tion.The application of remote sensing and Geographic Information System(GIS) techniques in snow cover monitoring and snowmelt runoff calculation in the upper Huanghe River basin are introduced amply in this paper.The key parame-ter-snow cover area can be computed by satellite images from multi-platform,multi-templral and multi-spectral.A clus-ter of snow-cover data can be yielded by means of the classification filter method.Meanwhile GIS will provide relevant information for obtaining the parameters and also for zoning .According to the typical samples extracting snow covered moun-tained in detail also.The runoff snowmelt models based on the snow-cover data from NOAA images and observation data of runoff,precipitation and air temperature have been satisfactorily used for predicting the inflow to the Longyangxia Reser-voir,which is located at lower end of snow cover region and is one of the largest reservoirs on the upper Huanghe River, during late March to early June.The result shows that remote sensing techniques combined with the ground meteorological and hydrological observation is of great potential in snowmelt runoff forecasting for a large river basin.With the develop-ment of remote sensing technique and the progress of the interpretation method,the forecast accuracy of snowmelt runoff will be improved in the near future .Large scale extent and few stations are two objective reality situations in Chian,so they should be considered in simulation and forecast.Apart from dividing ,the derivation of snow cover area from satellite images would decide the results of calculating runoff.Field investigation for selection of the learning samples of different snow patterns is basis for the classification.     

Ecological vulnerability analysis of Tibetan towns with tourism-based economy: a case study of the Bayi District

This paper provides a generalizable mode for the ecological vulnerability evaluation for tourism planning and development in high mountain areas. The Bayi District located in southeastern Tibet is taken as a typical town to study the conflict between the protection of natural ecological environment and the exploitation of tourism resources. Based on the Sensitivity-Recovery-Pressure (SRP) framework, a set of vulnerability evaluation systems for plateau tourism regions were developed. The spatial principal component analysis (SPCA), remote sensing and GIS technologies were integrated to apply for spatial quantification of evaluation index system. The ecological vulnerability of the Bayi District was divided into five levels: potential, mild, moderate, severe, and extreme, and our results showed that significantly severe and extreme vulnerability areas were mainly distributed throughout the southwestern and central northern alpine pasture and glacial zones. Potential and mild vulnerability areas were mainly distributed in the vicinity of the Yarlung Zangbo River tributary basin. Then three tourism development and environmental protection zones were classified and appropriate measures for the protection were proposed. It also provides a reference for the spatial distribution of a range of areas that require different protection measures according to ecological vulnerability classification.     

LAST GLACIATION AND MAXIMUM GLACIATION IN THE QINGHAI-XIZANG (TIBET) PLATEAU: A CONTROVERSY TO M. KUHLE,S ICE SHEET HYPOTHESIS

Since the late 1950's, many Chinese scientists have explored the remains of the Quaternary glaciation in the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau and its surrounding mountains. In the main, 3-4 glaciations have been recognized. The largest one occurred in the Late Middle Pleistocene with piedmont glaciers, ice caps and trellis valley glaciers in many high peak regions. But here is no evidence of a unified ice sheet covering the whole plateau as described by M. Kuhle. Due to the further uplifting of the Himalayas and Qinghai-Xizang Plateau the climate became progressively drier, diminishing the extension of glaciers during the Late Pleistocene. The elevation of the snow line during the Last Glaciation was about 4,000 m on the south, east and northeast edges of the plateau and ascended to 5500 m on the hinder northwest of the plateau. The thermal effect of the big plateau massif, the sharp increase of aridity from the southeast rim to the northwest inland area and the abrupt decrease of precipitation during the     

Snow cover variation and streamflow simulation in a snow-fed river basin of the Northwest Himalaya

Snowmelt is an important component of any snow-fed river system.The Jhelum River is one such transnational mountain river flowing through India and Pakistan.The basin is minimally glacierized and its discharge is largely governed by seasonal snow cover and snowmelt.Therefore,accurate estimation of seasonal snow cover dynamics and snowmeltinduced runoff is important for sustainable water resource management in the region.The present study looks into spatio-temporal variations of snow cover for past decade and stream flow simulation in the Jhelum River basin.Snow cover extent(SCE) was estimated using MODIS(Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) sensor imageries.Normalized Difference Snow Index(NDSI) algorithm was used to generate multi-temporal time series snow cover maps.The results indicate large variation in snow cover distribution pattern and decreasing trend in different sub-basins of the Jhelum River.The relationship between SCE-temperature,SCE-discharge and discharge-precipitation was analyzed for different seasons and shows strong correlation.For streamflow simulation of the entire Jhelum basin Snow melt Runoff Model(SRM) used.A good correlation was observed between simulated stream flow and in-situ discharge.The monthly discharge contribution from different sub-basins to the total discharge of the Jhelum River was estimated using a modified version of runoff model based on temperature-index approach developed for small watersheds.Stream power - an indicator of the erosive capability of streams was also calculated for different sub-basins.     

Last glaciation and maximum glaciation in the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau: A controversy to M. Kuhle’s ice sheet hypothesis

Since the late 1950’s, many Chinese scientists have explored the remains of the Quaternary glaciation in the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau and its surrounding mountains. In the main, 3–4 glaciations have been recognized. The largest one occurred in the Late Middle Pleistocene with piedmont glaciers, ice caps and trellis valley glaciers in many high peak regions. But here is no evidence of a unified ice sheet covering the whole plateau as described by M. Kuhle. Due to the further uplifting of the Himalayas and Qinghai-Xizang Plateau the climate became progressively driver, diminishing the extension of glaciers during the Late Pleistocene. The elevation of the snow line during the Last Glaciation was about 4,000 m on the south, east and northeast edges of the plateau and ascended to 5500 m on the hinder northwest of the plateau. The thermal effect of the big plateau massif, the sharp increase of aridity from the southeast rim to the northwest inland area and the abrupt decrease of precipitation during the Ice Age largely account for the distribution of the Quaternary glaciers in the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. The neglect of Chinese literature may be one of the causes accounting for M. Kuhle’s misinterpretation on the environment of the Quaternary glaciations in the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.     

THE CHARACTERISTICS AND VERTICAL ZONE SPECTRUM OF NATURAL DISASTERS IN THE TIANSHAN MOUNTAINS, XINJIANG

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Snow cover influences the thermal regime of active layer in Urumqi River Source,Tianshan Mountains,China

Snow cover is characterized by the high albedo, low thermal conductivity, and notable heat transition during phase changes. Thus, snow cover significantly affects the ground thermal regime. A comparison of the snow cover in high latitudes or high-altitude snowy mountain regions indicates that the eastern Tianshan Mountains (China) show a characteristically thin snow cover (snow depth below 15 cm) with remarkable temporal variability. Based on snow depth, heat flux, and ground temperature from 2014 to 2015 in the Urumqi River source, the spatialtemporal characteristics of snow cover and snow cover influences on the thermal conditions of active layer in the permafrost area were analyzed. During the autumn (Sept. - Oct.), thin and discontinuous snow cover can noticeably accelerate the exothermic process of the ground, producing a cooling effect on the shallow soil. During the winter (Nov. - Mar.), it is inferred that the effective thermal insulation starts with snow depth exceeding 10 cm during early winter. However, the snow depth in this area is generally below 15 cm, and the resulting snow-induced thermal insulation during the winter is very limited. Due to common heavy snowfalls in the spring (Apr. to May), the monthly mean snow thickness in April reached to 15 cm and remained until mid-May. Snow cover during the spring significantly retarded the ground warming. Broadly, snow cover in the study area exerts a cooling effect on the active layer and plays a positive role in the development and preservation of permafrost.     

多尺度视角下的青藏高原水资源短缺估算及空间格局

青藏高原水资源总量丰富,但由于水资源量与用水量在空间上分布不均衡,部分人口、城镇密集地区水资源短缺严重。本研究在多源数据的基础上,通过空间分析、降尺度处理等,建立了青藏高原省区、市域、县域空间尺度的水资源与用水量数据集。通过比较5、10、20、30年重现期多空间尺度的水资源短缺程度,分析水资源短缺在青藏高原的尺度效应,揭示青藏高原水资源短缺格局与特征,识别面临水资源短缺的人口与面积。结果表明,青藏高原在省区尺度无水资源短缺;在15个市域单元中,有3个市域出现水资源短缺;在115个县域单元中,有29个县域呈现出不同程度的水资源短缺,水资源短缺县域主要集中在青海省的河湟谷地、柴达木盆地与西藏自治区的一江两河流域等人口、城镇密集区域。总体而言,由于较大空间尺度地理单元内部各县域用水强度差异,在县域尺度面临水资源短缺的人口与面积大于市域与省区尺度面临水资源短缺的人口与面积。以县域为基本单元,发现青海省与西藏自治区30年重现期面临水资源短缺的人口占总人口的56.4%,出现水资源短缺的面积占总面积的10.4%。县域之间水资源短缺指数秩相关系数计算结果显示,省区内部各县域同时出现水资源短缺的可能性较大,而省区之间各县域同时出现水资源短缺的可能性相对随机。研究结果为制定青藏高原水资源短缺管理对策、促进区域城镇化与资源环境协调发展提供科学依据。     

Post-depositional modification of NO-3 in snow layers at EastAntarctica and at the headwater of ürumqi River

Acidic species, such as Nitrate, in polar snow and firn layers are “reversibly” deposited, and are sufficiently volatile to undergo significant postdepositional exchange between snow/firn and the atmosphere. Through comparison of the snowpit and snowpack nitrate concentrations from central East Antarctica and the headwater of ürumqi River, we conclude that the nitrate peaks in the uppermost surface snow layers in central Antarctica are not related to an atmospheric signal and must account for post-depositional effects. Such effects, however, are not found in the surface snowpack nitrate profiles from the headwater of ürumqi River. Two reasons may account for the post-depositional difference. At first, nitrate in the polar snow and firn layers appears to be hydrated ion, which can be taken up by the atmosphere, while at the headwater of ürumqi River it seems mainly as mineral ion, which assembles the behavior of aerosol-derived species that are “irreversibly” deposited and do not undergo significant post-depositional exchange with the atmosphere. Secondly, the chemical features of the snow and ice on the Antarctica are mainly determined by wet deposition, to the contrary, dry deposition is more significant at the headwater of lUrumqi River than that on the East Antarctic Plateau.     

Spatio-temporal variability of periphytic protozoa related to environment in the Niyang River,Tibet, China

The Niyang River, a main tributary of the Yarlung Zangbo River, is an important and typical plateau river ecosystem in Tibet, China. At present, few studies have focused on its aquatic living resources and river ecology. In this study, the composition, abundance, and diversity of periphytic protozoa were investigated across four seasons from 2008 to 2009 to better understand their spatio-temporal patterns and relationship to the environment. Our investigation shows that periphytic protozoa in the Niyang River contained 15 genera, belonged to Tubulinea, Alveolata, Discosea and Rhizaria, Alveolata possessed most genera, up to nine, with highest share in abundance, exceeding 50%, Difflugia and Glaucoma were dominant genera. Moreover, four diversity indices of periphytic protozoa, including species richness, total abundance, Shannon-Wiener diversity index and Pielou's evenness index, displayed a significant descending trend as the seasons continued, in the order of winter, spring, summer and autumn; with a significant difference existing between winter and summer(or autumn) for Shannon-Wiener diversity index and species richness( P 0.05). Four of these diversity indices also presented a V-shaped pattern between the upper middle course of the Niyang River and the confluence of the Niyang River and Yarlung Zangbo River, with the lowest value occurred in the middle course of the Niyang River. However, no significant variation was found through the Niyang River( P 0.05). In addition, canonical correlation analysis(CCA) shows that the densities of Difflugia, Glaucoma is, Enchelydium, Cyphoderia, and Enchelys correlate with water temperature, alkalinity, hardness, pH, and dissolved oxygen, respectively. Lastly, the relationship between periphytic protozoa diversity and the environmental factors of the Niyang River can be predicted using classification and regression trees(CART) annalysis, which suggests that the total abundance and Shannon-Wiener diversity index would be higher when the elevation is above 3 308 m. On the other hand, the Shannon-Wiener diversity index and Pielou's evenness index would be lower when pH and ammoniacal nitrogen have lower or higher values. Finally yet importantly, close attention should be paid to periphytic protozoa and its environment to ensure sustainable development of the Niyang River ecosystem.