海原活动断裂带破裂行为特征研究

通过对海原断裂带18个探槽资料的研究，分析得出海原断裂带是10ka以来共发生10次古地震事件，这些古地震事件具有分级破裂的特征，第一次和最后一次是沿全断裂的破裂事件，其他都是沿次级段落的破裂事件。在时间上，古地震事件的分布是不均匀的，具有丛集的特征；在空间上，具有西段或中东段（中段）来回迁移的特征。沿全断裂的破裂事件震级约8．5级左右，沿次级断裂的破裂事件震级约7．5级左右。     

海原断裂的古地震及特征地震破裂的分级性讨论

海原断裂高湾子地点三维探槽揭露了全新世5次事件的位移量。由老至新走滑位移量分别为：5．6±2．3,1．5±1．1,1．5±1．2,2±1和7±0．5m。古地震对比反映出,晚第四纪以来断裂带发生的14次事件中,仅有2～3次事件为贯穿全断裂的破裂事件,说明古地震并不都具有1920年海原大地震的强度。特征地震和段落存在分级性。破裂分级的现象不是孤立的,但多发生在走滑断裂上。     

以海原断裂甘肃老虎山段为例浅析走滑断裂古地震记录的完整性——兼论古地震研究中的若干问题

在简单介绍海原断裂老虎山段松山探槽点古地震工作的基础上,分析了制约走滑断裂上古地震记录完整性的因素。松山探槽点跨断裂开挖的2个探槽揭示颜色和粒度不同的地层互层的沉积序列呈近水平面状展布。在断裂带内地层发生错断、旋转和拖曳等变形现象。多个层位上的这种变形表明该点揭示了6次古地震事件。炭屑的~(14)C年龄限定了6次事件均发生在距今3500～3900年以来,其中最新的4次事件从老到新分别为0～410aAD、890～1000年之后不久、1440～1640 aAD和1990年景泰-天祝Mw5.8级历史地震。该序列及其他例子表明连续的、高沉积速率的微构造环境是走滑断裂上探槽选取的重要原则。     

西藏安多最新史前大地震的地质证据及其年龄

在西藏安多地区进行活动断裂研究过程中,进行地表调查和探槽开挖,证实错那－安多地堑北缘主边界断裂上的最新地表断层陡坎实际是该区史前大地震的地表遗迹。根据地表观察和实地测量结果可知,该区最新古地震断坎的延伸范围可达 26～36km,平均垂直位移量达 1.0～1.4m。相关地层－地貌体的年代学测试结果和古地震破裂参数表明,最新的古地震发生在距今约 10.0～8.1ka期间,估计当时的古地震震级介于 6.9～7.3级之间,当时的极震区烈度可能≥Ⅸ度。此古地震破裂的发现表明,青藏高原中部正断层型大地震之后的沉寂时间可以长达近万年,明显长于藏南裂谷带上的正断层型古地震活动间隔。由于安多地区最新大地震之后的离逝时间已足以积累类似强度的大地震,因此,该区未来的大地震危险性较高。     

鲜水河断裂带色拉哈段中谷村一带的最新地表破裂讨论

鲜水河断裂带色拉哈段是2014年康定M_S6.3地震的发震断裂段, 其最新一次地表破裂事件(1725年康定7级地震)的离逝时间较长, 是最可能发生7级以上地表破裂型大震的危险地段之一。获得色拉哈段最新地震地表破裂的展布范围对确定断裂带的地震活动历史、评估断裂带的未来地震危险性以及防震减灾具有重要意义。然而, 迄今色拉哈段最新地表破裂的北西端位置仍存有较大争议。对此, 在以往资料认为没有同震地表破裂的中谷村一带开挖了探槽组, 获得了这一带的破裂历史, 其最新一次事件(E6)的限定年代为A.D.746±51之后。综合探槽剖面证据和附近的断错地貌特征以及历史地震资料, 探槽揭露的最新事件E6可能对应1725年康定7级地震, 色拉哈段的地表破裂北西端至少已延伸到中谷村一带。      

新疆天山南部北轮台断裂古地震事件反演

北轮台断裂是一条全新世活动断裂,全长约70km,构成了南天山南麓与山前洪积扇的界线。该断裂晚第四纪期间活动性较强,为准确分析北轮台断裂的古地震特征,在野外地质调查的基础上,对变形的微地貌进行测量,在阿克艾肯和帝禾农业两段开挖两个大型古地震探槽,对北轮台断裂古地震进行了反演模拟推演。结果显示:北轮台断裂古地震活动频繁,阿克艾肯段探槽剖面记录到3次古地震事件,垂直累计位移量4.5m,根据逆断层变形特征,建立古地震模型反演分析,多次古地震事件属于原地同震复发,最新一次古地震事件造成的地表垂直位移量为1.5m左右;帝禾农业段活动性稍弱,对探槽剖面影像解译分析,该段记录古地震事件两次,最新一次事件垂直位错量达到1.1m。北轮台断裂记录的古地震事件与上盘存在侵蚀不整合面、下盘存在生长地层的规律一致。     

鲁甸MS 6.5 地震发震断层地表破裂特征、相关古地震的发现和年代测定

鲁甸M_S 6.5级地震发生后,余震分布呈现两个优势方向,其发震断层是NE向的昭通-鲁甸断裂,还是NW向的次级断裂,引起了广泛的讨论。详细的野外调查发现,从龙头山镇南东方向的谢家营盘-光明村-王家坡一线N22°W~N55°W走向断续展布长约8 km地表破裂带,呈左行右阶排列,伴有30~35 cm左右的走滑分量,局部走滑分量达40~60 cm,表明此次地震的发震构造为北西走向的包谷垴-小河断裂。探槽工程揭露出发震构造光明村-小垭口段4次古地震事件;8个炭屑样品的14C测年分析表明,事件E1可能发生在9190-8870 BC,E2为1000 BC至900 AD,E3为910-1240 AD,最新一次事件E4为2014年鲁甸MS 6.5级地震。该研究表明,云南地区6.5级强震可以产生地表破裂并可能在地质记录中留下遗迹。结合本次地表破裂特征,影像几何不连续以及探槽剖面揭露出古地震断面信息容易隐形等特征表明,包谷垴-小河断裂在历史活动中强度不大,属中强地震发震构造。     

古地震事件震级或强度大小限定的讨论

震级是表征地震能量大小的重要参数，但在古地震研究中，由于难以精确给定与地震矩紧密相关的破裂参数，故而无法直接计算事件的震级大小。研究者通常假定事件序列为震级相似的特征地震，或基于震级已知的历史地震地表破裂参数获取经验关系来进行震级估算。但已有研究表明特征地震的假设过于简化，而利用经验关系估算震级的方法也受限于各种误差，因此亟需探索新方法以提升古地震事件震级或规模大小评估的合理性。近年来，三维组合探槽的成功应用表明探槽内蕴含着丰富的事件变形信息，进而证实了在探槽内评估事件规模大小的可行性。基于此，文章以阿尔金断裂铜矿探槽为例，利用探槽揭示的事件变形强度，包括垂向位移量、变形带宽度和裂缝总拉张量，来评估事件序列的规模。数据分析结果表明，事件变形强度参数与震级相对大小具有一定的正相关性，且各参数之间也呈现部分相关性。因此，探槽中事件变形强度信息可以判断事件震级的相对大小，充分挖掘探槽内的事件变形信息可为合理评估古地震事件的震级提供借鉴和参考，在古地震研究中应加以重视。     

龙门山前山断裂大地震原地重复发生的地质地貌证据

龙门山前山断裂大地震是原地重复发生的吗？针对这一问题,对前山断裂的同震地表形变带进行了追踪,并选择5.12汶川地震区九龙、白鹿以及汉旺等3个地点开展了古地震探槽研究工作。调查结果是： 前山断裂5.12地震地表形变带基本沿1 ∶200000地质图上先存基岩断裂发育,但仅限于通济－安昌以南段; 白鹿－八角一带同震地表形变带继承先存断层陡坎或断层沟谷发育; 偏离先存断裂而被一些学者视为断裂全新世活动重要证据的永安附近T1阶地上线性陡坎实为废弃河岸; 白鹿、汉旺探槽剖面揭示这两个地点5.12汶川地震之前至少有过一次古地震事件。这些研究结果表明前山断裂大地震是沿晚第四纪活动断裂原地重复发生的,此次地震是沿先存活动断裂又一次发生的大地震事件,为大地震原地复发模型提供了一个新的震例支持。在沿该断裂周边进行规划建设时应当合理避让。     

基于LiDAR的海原断裂松山段断错地貌分析与古地震探槽选址实例

基于高精度机载Li DAR数据在GIS平台的地貌因子渲染分析,对海原断裂老虎山段松山地区古地震研究点进行高精度大比例尺(1∶1000)地貌填图,勾勒出研究点微地貌空间展布和断裂高精度几何形态。通过对松山古地震研究点2个新探槽的开挖,结合细致的探槽解译、地震事件识别与分期、年代学样品测试,得出5次37380±880BP以内的不连续古地震序列。通过对比此处已经开挖的各自相距不足150m、分布于断裂同一段落的4个古地震探槽的微地貌位置、沉积特征和地震事件信号强弱,发现即使相距不远,不同微地貌位置古地震探槽揭示的古地震现象也会有显著差别。这种差别凸显了古地震研究结果,如揭示的事件证据和个数等与探槽点位置的选取有较强的依赖性。综合对比分析表明,较低的地势、低能静水环境、高沉积速率、细粒的沉积物源区及连续的沉积环境是走滑断裂上开展古地震研究的优选地貌位置。实例表明,基于高精度地形数据对研究点开展精细地貌填图揭示微地貌时空演化,从而在探槽开挖前对古地震研究点的构造地貌优劣进行充分评价是提高古地震研究质量的必要程序,同时也显示出高精度机载Li DAR数据在活动构造研究中的重要新应用。     

Paleoseismic records of large earthquakes on the cross-basin fault in the Ganyanchi pull-apart basin,Haiyuan fault,northeastern Tibetan Plateau

Field observations and analog models show that cross-basin faults play a key role in the evolution of pull-apart basins and dominate the distribution of earthquake rupture in basin areas. We studied the long-term history of large earthquakes on a cross-basin fault to reveal its behavior in response to propagating earthquake rupture and gain insight into the evolution of the pull-apart basin. A number of pull-apart basins have developed along the Haiyuan fault in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, the largest being the Ganyanchi pull-apart basin. The surface rupture associated with the 1920 M 8.5 earthquake shows that a cross-basin fault developed in the basin and that the basin is now going through the late stage of its evolution. We excavated two trenches and drilled four cores across the cross-basin fault in the basin and found abundant evidence of paleoseismic events. Seven events were identified and ¹⁴C-dated. The two youngest events are associated with the historical records of 1092 AD and 1920 AD, respectively. The paleoseismic sequence shows the recurrence of earthquakes characterized by earthquake clusters alternating with a single event. Comparing these with previous paleoseismic results, all the major earthquake events seem to be associated with cascade events that ruptured multi-fault segments, suggesting that only an earthquake of this scale (likely M > 8) can produce obvious surface rupture along the cross-basin fault. We propose that the fault has a long tectonic history, with a series of cascade rupture events that could play an important part in the evolution of the pull-apart basin.     

Paleoseismology of the Palu–Lake Hazar segment of the East Anatolian Fault Zone, Turkey

The East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) is among the most important active continental transform fault zones in the world as testified by major historical and minor instrumental seismicity. The first paleoseismological exploratory trenching study on the EAFZ was done on the Palu–Lake Hazar segment (PLHS), which is one of the six segments forming the fault zone, in order to determine its past activity and to assess its earthquake hazard.The results of trenching indicate that the latest surface rupturing earthquakes on this segment may be the Ms=7.1+ 1874 and Ms=6.7 1875 events, and there were other destructive earthquakes prior to these events. The recurrence interval for a surface rupturing large (M>7) earthquake is estimated as minimum 100±35 and maximum 360 years. Estimates for the maximum possible paleoearthquake magnitude are (Mw) 7.1–7.7 for the Palu–Lake Hazar segment based on empirical magnitude fault rupture relations.An alluvial fan dated 14,475–15,255 cal years BP as well as another similar age fan with an abandoned stream channel on it are offset in a left-lateral sense 175 and 160.5 m, respectively, indicating an average slip rate of 11 mm/year. Because 127 years have elapsed since the last surface rupturing event, this slip rate suggests that 1.4 m of left-lateral strain has accumulated along the segment, ignoring possible creep effects, folding and other inelastic deformation. A 2.5 Ma age for the start of left-lateral movement on the segment, and in turn the EAFZ, is consistent with a slip rate of 11 mm/year and a previously reported 27 km total left-lateral offset. The cumulative 5–6 mm/year vertical slip rate near Lake Hazar suggests a possible age of 148–178 ka for the lake. Our trenching results indicate also that a significant fraction of the slip across the EAFZ zone is likely to be accommodated seismically. The present seismic quiescence compared with the past activity (paleoseismic and historic) indicate that the EAFZ may be “locked” and accumulating elastic strain energy but could move in the near future.     

古地震学:活动断裂强震复发规律的研究

古地震学是活动构造学、地震地质学和构造地貌学相结合的一个分支学科,它以野外工作为基础,以史前地震的发生位置、时间及震级为研究目标,其核心是古地震事件变形的地层和地貌证据。古地震学通过运用沉积地层学、地貌学和构造地质学等研究中常用的方法和手段来识别第四纪沉积中保存的史前强震的证据并对其进行准确年代测定,弥补了历史地震和仪器记录短而大地震原地复发间隔长的局限,获得活动断裂上多次强震的时空重复特征,为评估未来地震发生概率提供基础数据。本文对古地震学的历史、研究前沿和发展趋势进行综述。首先介绍了古地震学的定义、世界和中国古地震研究的发展历史和古地震研究中的基本研究方法,重点对古地震研究的最新进展和前沿领域,如古地震探槽方法的更新、古地震事件识别证据的分级和不确定性量化评估、古地震数据对地震复发间隔和同震位移的重复规律等理论认识的贡献以及基于震害效应的古地震研究等方面的重要研究成果进行了回顾,最后对古地震研究的未来发展趋势进行了展望,认为未来古地震研究中应加强地震事件识别证据的不确定性量化方法应用,在新的测年方法上开展探索,尝试和完善虚拟现实场景下的古地震研究。在中国,尤其像华北这样历史地震文献资料较为丰富的地区,历史地震震害记录与古地震探槽开挖的结合可以拓展震例研究的丰富程度,拓宽研究思路和方法,促进对难点地区活动断裂的古地震和区域地震危险性评价工作。     

Multiarchive paleoseismic record of late Pleistocene and Holocene strong earthquakes in Switzerland

A multiarchive approach has been applied to the investigation of the late Pleistocene and Holocene record of strong earthquakes in Switzerland. The geological archives used for this study include active faults, lake deposits, slope instabilities, and caves. In the Basle area, eight trenches were opened across the Basle–Reinach fault, nearby rockfall deposits were systematically investigated, sediment cores were taken from two lakes, and nine caves were studied. In Central Switzerland, five lakes were investigated by means of high-resolution seismic lines and sediment cores. Furthermore, three caves were studied in Central Switzerland. Altogether, the investigations are based on more than 350 km of high-resolution reflection seismic lines, 450 m of core samples, 260 m of trenches, and 245 radiocarbon age determinations. The measured co-seismic displacements along the Basle–Reinach fault supply independent information for the magnitude of the AD 1356 Basle earthquake exclusively based on geological evidence. Deformation features related to three well-documented strong historic earthquake shocks were identified. Deformation features of the AD 1774 Altdorf and AD 1601 Unterwalden earthquakes can be used to calibrate paleoseismic evidence in Central Switzerland. Altogether, traces of 13 earthquakes could be found in the two study areas, all of them with magnitudes M_w  6 or greater. For the first time, the earthquake catalogue for Switzerland can be extended back beyond historic records, into the late Pleistocene, spanning 15,000 years.     

Paleoseismological evidence for non-characteristic behavior of surface rupture associated with the 2004 Mid-Niigata Prefecture earthquake, central Japan

The 2004 Mid-Niigata Prefecture earthquake sequence (mainshock magnitude, M_JMA 6.8), which occurred in an active fold-and-thrust belt in northern central Japan, generated a small thrust surface rupture (< 20 cm of vertical displacement) along a previously unmapped northern extension of the active Muikamachi–Bonchi–Seien fault zone, on the eastern margin of the epicentral region. To better understand past seismic behavior of the rupture, we conducted a paleoseismic trenching study across the 10-cm-high west-side-up surface rupture at the foot of a pre-existing 1.8-m-high east-facing scarp, which probably resulted from past earthquake(s). A well-defined west-dipping thrust fault zone accompanied by drag folding and displacing the upper Pliocene to lower Pleistocene strata and the unconformably overlying upper Pleistocene (?) to Holocene strata was exposed. The principal fault zone is connected directly to the 2004 surface rupture. From the deformational characteristics of the strata and radiocarbon dating, we inferred that two large paleoseismic events occurred during the past 9000 years prior to the 2004 event. These two pre-2004 events have a nearly identical fault slip (at minimum, 1.5 m), which is ≥ 15 times that of the 2004 event (∼ 10 cm). These paleoseismic data, coupled with the geological and geomorphological features, suggest that the 2004 event represented non-characteristic behavior of the fault, which can potentially generate a more destructive earthquake accompanied by meter-scale surface displacement. This study provides insight into the interpretation of past faulting events and increases our understanding of rupture behavior.     

Late Quaternary Large Earthquakes on the Western Branch of the Xiaojiang Fault and Their Tectonic Implications

The Xiaojiang fault is a major active left-lateral fault along the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau.The largest historical earthquake in Yunnan Province, with a magnitude 8 and a mean coseismic left-lateral displacement of ~ 6.9 m, occurred on the western branch of the Xiaojiang fault.Studying this fault is important in understanding current deformation and kinematic characteristics of the Tibetan Plateau.Activities and stretches have been well undertaken on the Xiaojiang fault, while paleoseismic research work is always the weak link on this fault.To investigate the paleoseismic history and large earthquake activity of the Xiaojiang fault, we opened a large trench at the northern edge of Caohaizi sag pond on the western branch of the Xiaojiang fault.Six paleoseismic events have been identified, and named E1 through E6 from the oldest to the youngest.Charcoal and woods are abundant, 20 samples were dated to constrain the ages of the paleoseismic events at 40 000–36 300 BC, 35 400–24 800 BC, 9 500 BC–AD 500, AD 390–720, AD 1120–1620 and AD 1750–present.We associate the youngest event E6 with the 1833 M8 earthquake.Events E4, E5 and E6 show a continuous record of the western strand of the Xiaojiang fault in the late Holocene, with a average recurrence interval of 370–480 yr.Large earthquake recurrence in the late Holocene is far less than the recurrence of 2000–4000 yr posed in previous studies.Thus, the seismic hazard on the Xiaojiang fault should be reevaluated.Furthermore, the irregular recurrence of large earthquakes on the Xiaojiang fault and other faults in the Xianshuihe-Xiaojiang system, indicates the uneven southeastward extrusion of the Sichuan-Yunnan block along the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau.