Seismic hazard map of Coimbatore using subsurface fault rupture

This study presents the future seismic hazard map of Coimbatore city, India, by considering rupture phenomenon. Seismotectonic map for Coimbatore has been generated using past earthquakes and seismic sources within 300 km radius around the city. The region experienced a largest earthquake of moment magnitude 6.3 in 1900. Available earthquakes are divided into two categories: one includes events having moment magnitude of 5.0 and above, i.e., damaging earthquakes in the region and the other includes the remaining, i.e., minor earthquakes. Subsurface rupture character of the region has been established by considering the damaging earthquakes and total length of seismic source. Magnitudes of each source are estimated by assuming the subsurface rupture length in terms of percentage of total length of sources and matched with reported earthquake. Estimated magnitudes match well with the reported earthquakes for a RLD of 5.2% of the total length of source. Zone of influence circles is also marked in the seismotectonic map by considering subsurface rupture length of fault associated with these earthquakes. As earthquakes relive strain energy that builds up on faults, it is assumed that all the earthquakes close to damaging earthquake have released the entire strain energy and it would take some time for the rebuilding of strain energy to cause a similar earthquake in the same location/fault. Area free from influence circles has potential for future earthquake, if there is seismogenic source and minor earthquake in the last 20 years. Based on this rupture phenomenon, eight probable locations have been identified and these locations might have the potential for the future earthquakes. Characteristic earthquake moment magnitude (M _w ) of 6.4 is estimated for the seismic study area considering seismic sources close to probable zones and 15% increased regional rupture character. The city is divided into several grid points at spacing of 0.01° and the peak ground acceleration (PGA) due to each probable earthquake is calculated at every grid point in city by using the regional attenuation model. The maximum of all these eight PGAs is taken for each grid point and the final PGA map is arrived. This map is compared to the PGA map developed based on the conventional deterministic seismic hazard analysis (DSHA) approach. The probable future rupture earthquakes gave less PGA than that of DSHA approach. The occurrence of any earthquake may be expected in near future in these eight zones, as these eight places have been experiencing minor earthquakes and are located in well-defined seismogenic sources.     

A relationship between the source of the 25 May 1887 earthquake and the fault along the Biliktuika River valley (southern Siberian Platform)

Several active fault zones were studied in the southern Siberian Platform along the Kovykta–Sayansk–Irkutsk gas pipeline. Late Cenozoic seismogenic faults are observed here. The fault zone in the Biliktuika River valley shows the strongest displacements and deformations. The radiocarbon dating of buried soil horizons for this fault was compared with seismological data on the earthquakes observed in this area. The comparison permitted attributing the latest slip along the fault to the 25 May 1887 earthquake.     

2008年汶川大地震孕震、同震及震后变形和应力演化全过程的数值模拟

2008年M_S 8.0级汶川大地震发生在具有复杂的地质构造背景、强烈的地表起伏、不均匀的弹性和黏性结构的龙门山断裂带上。由于震前地震活动性不够强烈且地表构造变形较小,龙门山断裂带的地震危险性在汶川地震之前被低估。从数值模拟的角度,建立黏弹性有限元模型,考虑了初始地形、重力、构造加载、黏弹性松弛等因素对2008年汶川大地震的孕震、同震及震后150年变形全过程的影响,定量研究了映秀-北川断裂带的同震及震后变形,分析了弹性层、黏弹性层的应力积累、释放、调整的特点,模拟得到地表同震和震后位移与大地测量资料较为吻合,对汶川大地震的余震分布进行了力学上的解释,模拟得到震前、同震及震后的应力变化有助于深入分析大地震的动力学成因及其对周围区域的地震危险性影响。      

The Gibraltar Arc seismogenic zone (part 1): Constraints on a shallow east dipping fault plane source for the 1755 Lisbon earthquake provided by seismic data, gravity and thermal modeling

The Great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 with an estimated magnitude of 8.5–9.0 is the most destructive earthquake in European history, yet the source region remains enigmatic. Recent geophysical data provide compelling evidence for an active east dipping subduction zone beneath the nearby Gibraltar Arc. Marine seismic data in the Gulf of Cadiz image active thrust faults in an accretionary wedge, above an east dipping decollement and an eastward dipping basement. Tomographic and other data support subduction and rollback of a narrow slab of oceanic lithosphere beneath the westward advancing Gibraltar block.Although, no instrumentally recorded seismicity has been documented for the subduction interface, we propose the hypothesis that this shallow east dipping fault plane is locked and capable of generating great earthquakes (like the Nankai or Cascadia seismogenic zones). We further propose this east dipping fault plane to be a candidate source for the Great Lisbon earthquake of 1755. In this paper we use all available geophysical data on the deep structure of the Gulf of Cadiz–Gibraltar region for the purpose of constraining the 3-D geometry of this potentially seismogenic fault plane. To this end, we use new depth processed seismic data, have interpreted all available published and unpublished time sections, examine the distribution of hypocenters and perform 2-D gravity modeling. Finally, a finite-element model of the forearc thermal structure is constructed to determine the temperature distribution along the fault interface and thus the thermally predicted updip and downdip limits of the seismogenic zone.     

Paleoseismicity and seismic hazard in southern Patagonia (Argentina-Chile; 50°–55°S) and the role of the Magallanes-Fagnano transform fault

Patagonia, including the island of Tierra del Fuego, lies in southernmost South America at the junction of the South American, Antarctic, and Scotia tectonic plates. Historical and instrumental records have documented several local earthquakes of damaging magnitude, posing a threat to the rapidly growing population of 300,000 and the expanding industrial and service infrastructure. Short and inaccurate instrumental records of local seismic events and a diffuse epicenter distribution not clearly related to the recognized seismogenic structures have hindered an adequate evaluation of the seismic hazard for this region. To improve this situation, a paleoseismological study was carried out on two gravelly strandplains on the Atlantic coast of Patagonia. Surveying combined ground-probing radar, vertical electric sounding, and seismic refraction. Coseismic normal faults buried beneath the strandplain bodies were revealed and related to the morphology of the strandplains. The faults have probable ages between 0.9 and 6.4 kyr BP and a recurrence rate of about 1 kyr. The more likely source for these structures is the Magallanes-Fagnano fault, a continental transform fault that crosses Tierra del Fuego. The distance of more than 300 km from the buried coseismic structures to the trace of the Magallanes-Fagnano fault argues for high-magnitude earthquake activity on this fault throughout the Holocene. Urban development on soft glacial and alluvial substrates increases the hazard.     

孕震构造块体与相应地震区划分方法

可靠地划分地震区可奠定地震预测与地震危险性评价的地质基础,具有十分重要的意义。笔者等通过研究分析指出板内孕震构造块体侧向边界可由区域性大断层或由区域性大断层与板块边界界定,底边界为康拉德面或低速高导层;板间孕震构造块体为俯冲板块,可由区域性大断层和(或)板块边界约束;在同一个孕震构造块体和同一轮地震周期的地震具有内在联系。因此,地震区可定义为代表相应孕震构造块体地震活动的区域,其可表征该块体内源自锁固段破裂的地震活动。基于笔者等提出的孕震构造块体和相应地震区边界确定原则,把全球两大地震带(环太平洋地震带和欧亚地震带)划分为62个地震区;每个地震区的分区方案均通过了多锁固段脆性破裂理论的检验,这说明方案可靠。进而,笔者等归纳总结了地震区划分方法。     

Local seismic hazard assessment in areas of weak to moderate seismicity—case study from Eastern Germany

Generally the seismic hazard of an area of interest is considered independent of time. However, its seismic risk or vulnerability, respectively, increases with the population and developing state of economy of the area. Therefore, many areas of moderate seismic hazard gain increasing importance with respect to seismic hazard and risk analysis. However, these areas mostly have a weak earthquake database, i.e., they are characterised by relative low seismicity and uncertain information concerning historical earthquakes. In a case study for Eastern Thuringia (Germany), acting as example for similar places in the world, seismic hazard is estimated using the probabilistic approach. Because of the lack of earthquakes occurring in the recent past, mainly historical earthquakes have to be used. But for these the actual earthquake sources or active faults, needed for the analysis, are imprecisely known. Therefore, the earthquake locations are represented by areal sources, a common practice. The definition of these sources is performed carefully, because their geometrical shape and size (apart from the earthquake occurrence model) influence the results significantly. Using analysis tools such as density maps of earthquake epicentres, seismic strain and energy release support this. Oversizing of areal sources leads to underestimation of seismic hazard and should therefore be avoided. Large location errors of historical earthquakes on the other hand are represented by several alternative areal sources with final superimposition of the different results. In a very similar way information known from macroseismic observations interpreted as source rather than as site effects are taken into account in order to achieve a seismic hazard assessment as realistic as possible. In very local cases the meaning of source effects exceeds those of site effects very likely. The influence of attenuation parameter variations on the result of estimated local seismic hazard is relatively low. Generally, the results obtained by the seismic hazard assessment coincide well with macroseismic observations from the thoroughly investigated largest earthquake in the region.     

唐山地震区域构造背景和发震模式的讨论

1976年7月28日3点42分在我国河北省唐山地区发生了7.8级强烈地震。地震的发生,是有它的区域构造背景和震区的构造条件的。深入研究这个问题,对认识地震的形成、孕育和发生是十分有意义的。唐山地震震中与深大断裂没有表现直接的联系,而是分布在不引入注目的北东向断裂上。其控制因素我们认为是包围震区的边界断裂起了重要作用。边界断裂的存在使被围限的北东向断裂得到了暂时的平衡,形成相对“闭锁”区段。当区域应力场急剧变化时,“闭锁”就被突破,产生大地震。     

基于震害统计的城市地下空间地震安全性评价

建筑物的地震安全性是城市规划和建设过程首先要回答的问题。我国城市地震安全性评价的方法理论多针对地上建筑物,而对地下空间的地震安全性研究较为薄弱,严重滞后于城市发展对地下空间的需求。活断层是诱发地震、导致建筑物破坏的的直接因素。考虑到空间关系上,地下空间与断层之间的交互关系为相交或相离。因此,本文将地下空间分为两类:与断层相交的地下空间称为跨断层地下空间,远离断层的地下空间称为远离断层地下空间。本文尝试将断裂带同震地表破裂、地震峰值加速度、地震烈度等地表地震安全性评价考量的要素与地下空间埋藏深度建立联系,并在此基础上总结基于震害统计的地下空间地震安全性评价方法。最后,本文选取地下空间利用需求较高的深圳和北京地区为实例进行介绍。     

滇西南2014年景谷中-强震群的地质构造成因——茶房-普文断裂带贯通过程的构造响应

2014年10—12月期间,云南景谷接连发生了Ms6.6、Ms5.8、Ms5.9三次中-强地震。为确定地震的地质构造成因,在地表调查的基础上,综合该区的地质构造情况、烈度与余震分布、震源机制解等资料,确定此次震群活动的宏观震中位于永平盆地东南侧山地,发震断层为地质与地貌表现不显著的NW向右旋走滑断层。此次震群活动及余震迁移过程指示,由于断层斜接部位岩桥的临时阻碍,Ms6.6地震破裂在向南东扩展过程中发生短暂停滞,突破障碍后进一步引发了Ms5.8和Ms5.9地震,这符合震源破裂沿NW向发震断裂分段破裂的行为。区域活动断裂的遥感解译结果发现,发震断层位置恰好处于NW向右旋走滑的茶房断裂与普文断裂之间,区域上属于该断裂带的不连贯部位,指示此次中-强震群活动应该是茶房-普文断裂带贯通过程的构造活动表现。结合思茅地块的历史地震资料发现,思茅地块地震活动多以小于等于6.8级为主,发震构造多为NW向断裂。指示在现今构造应力场作用下,该区NW向断裂的活动性相对NE向断裂更加显著,属于该区主要控震构造,应在今后的地震地质工作中给予更多关注。     

中国活动构造研究的进展与展望

本文试图在世界活动构造研究背景下概括中国活动构造研究的进展，并对最近20年来中国的活动构造研究，包括几何学、滑动速率、古地震和大震重复间隔、分段理论和应用、活动褶皱、深浅构造耦合关系、城市和海域活动构造探测、块体划分和块体运动、地震危险性的未来断裂滑动量评价及中国现代构造活动动力学等进行简要评述，对今后在这些方面的发展进行概略的讨论。     

The 1905 Chamonix earthquakes: active tectonics in the Mont Blanc and Aiguilles Rouges massifs

Linking earthquakes of moderate size to known tectonic sources is a challenge for seismic hazard studies in northwestern Europe because of overall low strain rates. Here we present a combined study of macroseismic information, tectonic observations, and seismic waveform modelling to document the largest instrumentally known event in the French northern Alps, the April 29, 1905, Chamonix earthquake. The moment magnitude of this event is estimated at M_w 5.3 ± 0.3 from records in Göttingen (Germany) and Uppsala (Sweden). The event of April 29 was followed by several afterschocks and in particular a second broadly felt earthquake on August 13, 1905. Macroseismic investigations allow us to favour a location of the epicentres 5–10 km N–NE of Chamonix. Tectonic analysis shows that potentially one amongst several faults might have been activated in 1905. Among them the right lateral strike-slip fault responsible for the recent 2005 M_w = 4.4 Vallorcine earthquake and a quasi-normal fault northeast of the Aiguilles Rouges massif are the most likely candidates. Discussion of tectonic, macroseismic, and instrumental data favour the normal fault hypothesis for the 1905 Chamonix earthquake sequence.     

Seismicity of Sinai Peninsula, Egypt

The Sinai Peninsula has a triangular shape between the African and Arabian Plates and is bounded from the western and eastern borders by the Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba–Dead Sea rift systems, respectively. It is affected by strong and destructive earthquakes (e.g., March 31, 1969 and November 22, 1995) and moderate earthquakes (m _b?>?5) throughout its history. After the installation of the Egyptian National Seismic Network (ENSN), a great number of earthquakes has been recorded within and around Sinai. Consequently, the seismogenic source zones and seismotectonic behavior can be clearly identified. Available data, including both historical and instrumental (1900–1997), have been collected from national and international data centers. While the data from 1998 till December 2007 are gathered from ENSN bulletins. The seismogenic source zones that might affect Sinai Peninsula are defined more precisely in this work depending on the distribution of earthquakes, seismicity rate (a value), b value, and fault plane solution of the major earthquakes. In addition, the type of faults prevailed and characterized these zones. It is concluded that the Gulf of Aqaba zone–Dead Sea transform zone, Gulf of Suez rift zone, Cairo–Suez District zone, and Eastern Mediterranean dislocation zone represent the major effective zones for Sinai. Furthermore, there are two local seismic zones passing through Sinai contributing to the earthquake activities of Sinai, these are the Negev shear zone and Central Sinai fault (Themed fault) zone. The source parameters, a and b values, and the maximum expected moment magnitude have been determined for each of these zones. These results will contribute to a great extent in the seismic hazard assessment and risk mitigation studies for Sinai Peninsula to protect the developmental projects.     

Deep seismic reflection profiling across the Ou Backbone range, northern Honshu Island, Japan

Knowledge of the crustal structure, especially the geometry of seismogenic faults, is key to understanding active tectonic processes and assessing the size and frequency of future earthquakes. To reveal the relationship between crustal structure and earthquake activity in northern Honshu Island, common midpoint (CMP) deep reflection profiling and earthquake observations by densely deployed seismic stations were carried out across the active reverse faults that bound the Ou Backbone range. The 40-km-long CMP profiles portray a relatively simple fault geometry within the seismogenic layer. The reverse faults merge at a midcrustal detachment just below the base of the seismogenic layer, producing a pop-up structure that forms the Ou Backbone range. The top of the reflective middle to lower crust (4.5 s in travel time (TWT)) nearly coincides with the bottom of seismogenic layer. The P-wave velocity structure and surface geology suggest that the bounding faults are Miocene normal faults that have been reactivated as reverse faults.     

基于GPS监测的芦山地震周围地区同震位移与运动速度

通过对2013年"4.20"四川芦山地震前后GPS观测数据的处理,得到地震周围地区GPS测站同震位移及速度矢量场。GPS测站同震位移大小为5.09~51.05mm,平均为14.18mm;GPS测站运动速度为2.64~52.37mm/a,平均为18.89mm/a。利用断裂两侧GPS测站速度矢量差得到了龙门山断裂带南段次级断裂的运动速度,龙门山断裂带南段的后山断裂、中央断裂、前山断裂运动速度大小分别为49.66±3.90mm/a、79.58±3.33mm/a、50.94±3.91/a;中央断裂以右旋挤压为主,而后山断裂、前山断裂表现为左旋拉张的特性。综合分析表明,芦山地震是发生在龙门山断裂带南段东南侧的逆冲型地震,发震构造为前山断裂与新津断裂之间的小断层。芦山地震对周围地区的影响不大,主要集中在龙门山断裂带南段及震中附近区域。     

The 1984 Abruzzo earthquake (Italy): an example of seismogenic process controlled by interaction between differently oriented synkinematic faults

The evolution of the seismogenic process associated with the M_s 5.8 Sangro Valley earthquake of May 1984 (Abruzzo, central Italy) is closely controlled by the Quaternary extensional tectonic pattern of the area. This pattern is characterised by normal faults mainly NNW striking, whose length is controlled by pre-existing Mio–Pliocene N100±10° left-lateral strike-slip fault zones. These are partly re-activated as right-lateral normal-oblique faults under the Quaternary extensional regime and behave as transfer faults.Integration of re-located aftershocks, focal mechanisms and structural features are used to explain the divergence between the alignment of aftershocks (WSW–ENE) and the direction of seismogenic fault planes defined by the focal mechanisms (NNW–SSE) of the main shock and of the largest aftershock (M_s=5.3).The faults that appear to be involved in the seismogenic process are the NNW–SSE Barrea fault and the E–W M. Greco fault. There is field evidence of finite Quaternary deformation indicating that the normal Barrea fault re-activates the M. Greco fault as right-lateral transfer fault. No surface faulting was observed during the seismic sequence. The apparently incongruent divergence between aftershocks and nodal planes may be explained by interpreting the M. Greco fault as a barrier to the propagation of earthquake rupturing. The rupture would have nucleated on the Barrea fault, migrating along-strike towards NNW. The sharp variation in direction from the Barrea to the M. Greco fault segments would have represented a structural complexity sufficient to halt the rupture and subsequent concentration of post-seismic deformation as aftershocks around the line of intersection between the two fault planes.Fault complexities, similar to those observed in the Sangro Valley, are common features of the seismic zone of the Apennines. We suggest that the zones of interaction between NW–SE and NNW–SSE Plio-Quaternary faults and nearly E–W transfer faults, extending for several kilometres in the same way as M. Greco does, might act as barriers to the along-strike propagation of rupture processes during normal faulting earthquakes. This might have strong implications on seismic hazard, especially for the extent of the maximum magnitude expected on active faults during single rupture episodes.     

福建仙游地区高精度地震震源定位及深部断裂特征

福建仙游位于福建省东南沿海中部,其周边地区历史地震活动较平静,属于弱震区。但自从该地区的金钟水库于2010年5月下闸蓄水后,库区附近的地震活动性随之增强。为深入了解该地区的地震活动性、地震分布特征以及寻找隐伏断层,利用中国地震局提供的地震初至震相数据,使用双差定位方法对仙游地区近10年发生的地震进行重定位,获得了更为精确的震源位置,并根据重定位结果模拟深部断裂,寻找隐伏断层。结果显示：(1)重定位后的震源位置更加集中,按照发震时间可分为4个活动区,主要沿沙县—南日岛的次级断裂石苍断裂两侧北西向线性分布。(2)重定位后仙游震群的震源深度主要为8～11 km。石苍断裂左侧地震条带震源深度为6～12 km;右侧地震条带呈现明显的分层现象,上层西北侧地震较为分散,东南侧地震分布较紧凑,震源深度同左侧一样为6～12 km,而下层地震较少,震源深度为14～23 km。(3)根据重定位后的震源位置,利用奇异值分解法拟合得到三个深部断层面,其倾向均为南西向,走向为北西向,与石苍断裂和潼关断裂的倾向和走向一致。结合前人研究成果和本研究结果,推测石苍断裂并不是主发震断层,而是其两侧存在的深部断裂(高倾角隐...     

What triggers Koyna region earthquakes? Preliminary results from seismic tomography digital array

The cause for prolific seismicity in the Koyna region is a geological enigma. Attempts have been made to link occurrence of these earthquakes with tectonic strain as well as the nearby reservoirs. With a view to providing reliable seismological database for studying the earth structure and the earthquake process in the Koyna region, a state of the art digital seismic network was deployed for twenty months during 1996–97. We present preliminary results from this experiment covering an area of 60 × 80 km² with twenty seismic stations. Hypocentral locations of more than 400 earthquakes confined to 11×25 km² reveal fragmentation in the seismicity pattern — a NE — SW segment has a dip towards NW at approximately 45°, whilst the other two segments show a near vertical trend. These seismic segments have a close linkage with the Western Ghat escarpment and the Warna fault. Ninety per cent of the seismicity is confined within the depth range of 3–10 km. The depth distribution of earthquakes delimits the seismogenic zone with its base at 10 km indicating a transition from an unstable to stable frictional sliding regime. The lack of shallow seismicity between 0 and 3 km indicates a mature fault system with well-developed gouge zones, which inhibit shallow earthquake nucleation. Local earthquake travel time inversion for P- and S-waves show ≈ 2% higher velocity in the seismogenic crust (0–10 km) beneath the epicentral tract relative to a lower velocity (2–3%) in the adjoining region. The high P- and S-wave velocity in the seismogenic crust argues against the presence of high pressure fluid zones and suggests its possible linkage with denser lithology. The zone of high velocity has been traced to deeper depths (≈ 70 km) through teleseismic tomography. The results reveal segmented and matured seismogenic fault systems in the Koyna region where seismicity is possibly controlled by strain build up due to competent lithology in the seismic zone with a deep crustal root.     

Earthquake hazard of dams along the Mekong mainstream

In this study, the earthquake hazard was evaluated for all of 19 of the proposed or built dams along the Mekong River. All values representing a potential indication of hazardous earthquakes, such as the closest earthquake and seismogenic faults and including the seismic parameters required for a seismic safety evaluation, were clarified. The results will be useful in reviewing the safety of existing dams and for the design of suitable earthquake resistant specifications for any currently or future planned dam construction in this area. Seismotectonically, 14 of the 19 proposed Mekong River dams are located within an earthquake source zone. Most of faults are potentially still active, according to both seismicity and paleoseismological evidence. In addition, the maximum credible earthquakes were estimated to be in the range of 7–8 Mw for the closest fault zone of each dam. Previous isoseismal maps indicated a risk of shaking intensities of around scale III–IV (Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale) for the dams. According to the preliminary ranging of the International Commission on Large Dams, 9 of these 19 dams are classified as in an extreme hazard class and so need careful observation and monitoring of hazardous earthquakes. An effective mitigation plan should also be prepared for each operating dam.     

3-D seismic structure of the Kachchh,Gujarat, and its implications for the earthquake hazard mitigation

Several pieces of studies on the January 26, 2001, Bhuj earthquake (Mw 7.6) revealed that the mainshock was triggered on the hidden unmapped fault in the western part of Indian stable continental region that caused a huge loss in the entire Kachchh rift basin of Gujarat, India. Occurrences of infrequent earthquakes of Mw 7.6 due to existence of hidden and unmapped faults on the surface have become one of the key issues for geoscientific research, which need to be addressed for evolving plausible earthquake hazard mitigation model. In this study, we have carried out a detailed autopsy of the 2001 Bhuj earthquake source zone by applying three-dimensional (3-D) local earthquake tomography (LET) method to a completely new data set consisting of 576 local earthquakes recorded between November 2006 and April 2009 by a seismic network consisting of 22 numbers of three-component broadband digital seismograph stations. In the present study, a total of 7560 arrival times of P-wave (3820) and S-wave (3740) recorded at least 4 seismograph stations were inverted to assimilate 3-D P-wave velocity (Vp), S-wave velocity (Vs), and Poisson’s ratio (σ) structures beneath the 2001 Bhuj earthquake source zone for reliable interpretation of the imaged anomalies and its bearing on earthquake hazard of the region. The source zone is located near the triple junction formed by juxtapositions of three Indian, Arabian, and Iranian tectonic plates that might have facilitated the process of brittle failure at a depth of 25 km beneath the KRB, Gujarat, which caused a gigantic loss to both property and persons of the region. There may be several hidden seismogenic faults around the epicentral zone of the 2001 Bhuj earthquake in the area, which are detectable using 3-D tomography to minimize earthquake hazard for a region. We infer that the use of detailed 3-D seismic tomography may offer potential information on hidden and unmapped faults beneath the plate interior to unravel the genesis of such big damaging earthquakes. This study may help in evolving a comprehensive earthquake risk mitigation model for regions of analogous geotectonic settings, elsewhere in the world.