成都区域气象中心业务数值预报产品检验分析

依据国家气象中心T213、T639全球模式、成都区域中心实时运行的AREM、GRAPES和MM5中尺度数值模式预报结果,对2008年5～9月进行了日降水量和2m温度检验。结果表明：（1）模式对昆明、南京、广州、长沙、北京和郑州温度预报优于温江、兰州和拉萨站,其中拉萨站温度预报与实况偏差最大,即模式对我国中部及南部地区温度预报与实况近似程度高于西部地区。（2）东部地区中雨及以上量级降水评分高于西部,西部4个城市中以昆明站评分最高,反映模式对我国西部城市降雨预报能力偏弱。     

成都区域气象中心业务数值预报产品检验分析

依据国家气象中心T213、T639全球模式、成都区域中心实时运行的AREM、GRAPES和MM5中尺度数值模式预报结果,对2008年5~9月进行了日降水量和2m温度检验。结果表明:(1)模式对昆明、南京、广州、长沙、北京和郑州温度预报优于温江、兰州和拉萨站,其中拉萨站温度预报与实况偏差最大,即模式对我国中部及南部地区温度预报与实况近似程度高于西部地区。(2)东部地区中雨及以上量级降水评分高于西部,西部4个城市中以昆明站评分最高,反映模式对我国西部城市降雨预报能力偏弱。      

T213与AREM模式分级降水预报对比检验

为检验T213与AREM模式的降水预报效果,将2004-2005连续两年两个模式的预报结果与河南省117站逐日降水实况进行分级TS评分检验,结果发现:两个模式对小雨以上量级的预报能力基本相当,夏秋季节的预报效果好于冬春季节;中雨以上量级预报均无季节特征;大雨以上量级的预报评分夏季T213高于AREM模式;大暴雨预报AREM模式好于T213.对3例不同性质降水过程落区的预报检验表明:AREM对一般稳定性降水和暴雨以上量级降水的预报能力较强.     

天气系统预报效果的量化检验方法及应用

对中国天气过程进行了分类,并介绍了一种针对模式对于降水及各种天气系统预报效果的天气学检验方法,将此方法应用于AREM模式对2007年降水个例预报及2005—2007年汛期天气过程的批量预报检验,得出结论如下:(1)此天气学检验方法能够对各类天气系统及降水进行有效的检验,(2)对于中国典型高空槽类降水,AREM模式总体上对高空槽预报较为稳定、强度接近实况,对降水预报稳定性相对较差、强度偏弱,槽预报的较好(差)与降水预报的较好(差)不完全对应,(3)对于梅雨锋类降水,AREM模式对副高预报总体偏西、偏北、偏强,对高空槽、降水预报均总体偏弱,副高预报的较好(差)对应降水预报的较好(差)。     

AREM模式中陆面过程的改进与试验

为了提高AREM模式业务预报能力,对AREM业务模式陆面过程参数化方案作了修改,将陆面过程模式BATS耦合其中;同时,应用耦合BATS的AREM模式与原模式分别对2006年6～7月我国南方汛期降水过程进行了典型个例模拟分析和批量后报试验;另外,对降水预报进行了分区统计检验。结果表明,引入BATS方案使模式对降水区和降水中心预报有较好的改进,漏报率减小,Ts评分明显提高,这说明恰当描述陆面过程对改进AREM模式降水预报具有重要作用。     

2007年汛期AREM模式降水预报效果检验分析

过对2007年6～8月AREM模式降水预报做不同时效、不同区域的TS评分对比,比较AREM与T213、JAPAN三个模式降水预报TS评分,并对AREM模式2007年汛期主要降水过程预报效果进行检验分析,从而获得AREM模式2007年汛期降水预报效果和特点,结果表明:(1)从AREM模式不同时效降水预报TS评分对比可知,对长江中下游区域,AREM模式12～36 h预报效果好于0～24 h预报,24～48 h效果相对较差,对华南、华北、东北、西南东部区域的降水,AREM模式预报效果均随时效延长而减弱。(2)由AREM模式对不同区域降水预报TS评分的对比可知,AREM模式(各预报时效)对长江中下游地区各量级降水预报的TS评分均高于全国范围的TS评分,西南东部(各预报时效)小雨(以上)量级TS评分均为各区域最高,但中雨以上各量级TS评分均低于全国范围,其他区域无稳定的预报特性。(3)从AREM、T213、JAPAN对长江中下游地区12～36 h降水预报TS评分对比可知,三个模式小雨(以上)量级降水的TS评分基本相当,对该区域暴雨、大暴雨强降水中心的预报,AREM好于T213,JAPAN相对较差,随量级增加AREM预报优势表现更为明显。(4)对2007年汛期6次个例分析可知,AREM模式对长江中下游尤其是江淮流域的大范围强降水过程预报效果较好,对暴雨、大暴雨中心的预报较T213和JAPAN有明显的优势,但对小范围、局地强降水过程的预报效果不够理想。     

AREM数值模式对2005年汛期四川的降水预报

应用中国科学院大气物理研究所的AREM模式，对2005年汛期四川进行了实时降水预报。结果表明：（1）AREM预报性能略好于成都区域中心业务运行模式ETA模式，对大雨和暴雨的TS评分，AREM略高于T213预报。（2）从梯度评分看，高度、温度、涡度等要素均为可预报，而地面温度、整层水汽含量和整层水汽通量散度可预报性较低。（3）AREM对5次区域性暴雨有较好的反映，但与实况还存在一定的差异，AREM降水强度预报较实况偏弱。     

EC细网格2m温度对沧州市的预报能力检验及订正

利用EC模式对2017年沧州市14个国家基本站2m最高、最低温度的24、48、72h预报结果,采用预报准确率、平均误差、平均绝对误差和皮尔森相关系数等统计方法进行检验及订正。结果表明:EC模式对不同预报时效预报准确率,最高温度模式20时起报高于08时,最低温度08时起报高于20时;随着预报时效的延长,模式预报准确率逐渐下降。预报准确率最高温度区域差异不明显,月际变化大;最低温度区域差异显著,月际变化不均。EC模式对沧州温度的预报误差主要由系统误差造成,温度预报绝大多数的大值误差出现在转折性天气阶段,当出现明显升温和高温时,最高温度预报偏低更明显,出现明显降温时,最低温度预报偏高。对2018年1-4月EC模式预报最高、最低温度进行系统和大误差订正检验,发现订正后预报效果更好。     

区域数值模式对两次暴雨过程的降水模拟比较

分析了应用于西南地区的MM5、GRAEPS、AREM和成都区域业务运行数值模式(η)4个区域模式对2004年6月29~30日成都邻近地区和9月2~6日四川盆地东北部的暴雨降水过程进行了模拟。模拟结果表明,4个区域模式对这两次强降水过程有不同程度的反映。MM5、GRAPES和AREM显示了较好的预报能力,特别是MM5和AREM模式的预报在落区、强度和降水演变上与实况较一致。AREM模式预报的雨区清晰,但降水强度偏弱;MM5模式在预报出强降水的同时,出现较多的虚假降水,对持续时间长的降水过程预报较好,GRAPES预报的雨区较不稳定,但对持续时间短的过程有较好的反映;η模式降水预报偏小太多,对6月30日的过程在盆地的预报无明显反映。因此,有必要加大区域模式本地化工作,发展适合西南地区的数值模式,开展数值集合预报技术研究,整体提高成都区域中心数值预报水平。     

2005年AREM模式汛期试验结果评估分析

AREM2．3模式2005年在中国气象局武汉暴雨研究所汛期试验过程中计算稳定，计算了该模式降水预报的分区域（长江中下游、华南、华北、东北、西南、湖北省）汛期（6、7、8三个月）TS评分，全国范围汛期漏报率、空报率、预报偏差，及各区域年内重要降水过程预报和实况的对比及TS评分，计算该模式形势场预报的平均误差、均方根误差、倾向相关系数、误差标准差，并与持续性预报（将前一天的分析场当作前一天对当天的预报场，以此类推）对比，以此对模式预报效果进行分析、评估，并做出总结，为模式的进一步开发和应用提供参考。分析结果表明：AREM2．3模式在2005年汛期试验期问48小时内预报稳定；对于长江中下游、华北、华南、东北、西南、湖北省以至全国范围均有较好的预报水平，但总体上对于强降水中心位置的预报情况不是很好；模式对于高空形势场也具有较好的预报能力，对500hPa位势高度的预报好于对500hPa温度的预报。     

1,800 Years of abrupt climate change, severe fire, and accelerated erosion, Sierra Nevada, California, USA

This paper provides both a detailed history of environmental change in the Sierra Nevada over the past 1,800 years and evidence for climate teleconnections between the Sierra Nevada and Greenland during the late Holocene. A review of Greenland ice core data suggests that the magnitudes of abrupt changes in temperature and precipitation increased beginning c. 3,700 and 3,000 years ago, respectively. Precipitation increased abruptly 1,300 years ago. Comparing paleotemperature data from Cirque Peak, CA with paleoprecipitation data from Pyramid Lake, NV suggests that hot temperatures occurred at the beginnings of most severe droughts in the Sierra Nevada over the past 1,800 years. Severe fires and erosion also occurred at Coburn Lake, CA at the beginning of all severe droughts in the Sierra Nevada over the past 1,800 years. This suggests that abrupt climate change during the late Holocene caused vegetation and mountain slopes in some areas to be out of equilibrium with abruptly changed climates. Finally, the ending of drought conditions in Greenland coincided with the beginning of drought conditions in the Sierra Nevada over the past 1,800 years, perhaps as a result of the rapidly changed locations of the Earth??s major precipitation belts during abrupt climate change events.     

The microstructure of selected, small, isolated, cumulus clouds near Red Deer, Alberta

Physical experiments designed to explore the potential of rain augmentation through airborne glaciogenic seeding on small, isolated non-precipitating cumuliform clouds near Red Deer, Alberta were carried out during the period 1982–1985. The microstructure of 90 cumulus congestus clouds have been documented through repeated in-situ sampling using a cloud physics instrumented aircraft platform. Observations from the inspection passes of 57 clouds seeded with either dry ice pellets or silver iodide pyrotechnics, and all the passes of 33 natural clouds are presented.Measurements of the cloud droplet concentration indicate that Alberta cumulus clouds are typically continental in nature, with an average droplet concentration of 535 cm⁻³ and an average droplet diameter of 10.6 μm. Alberta clouds have average liquid water contents of 0.57 g m⁻³, with a peak 1-sec value of 3.17 g m⁻³. The 1-km average liquid water contents are 0.83 g m⁻³, with a peak value of 2.81 g m⁻³. Cloud lifetimes vary between 11 and 20 minutes. Concentrations of naturally occurring ice crystals are found to be low. The average maximum 1-km ice concentration was 31⁻¹, and the peak 1-km concentration was 73.11⁻¹ in the natural cloud dataset. Evidence of precipitation-sized particles was detected in 21% (7 of 33) of the clouds, and precipitation below cloud base was detected in 6% (2 of 33) of the clouds.A comparison of the Alberta cloud characteristics to the cumulus clouds from different locations showed that there are some distinct differences between Alberta clouds and the clouds from the other regions.     

Performance of CMORPH,TMPA, and PERSIANN rainfall datasets over plain,mountainous, and glacial regions of Pakistan

The present study aims at the assessment of six satellite rainfall estimates (SREs) in Pakistan. For each assessed products, both real-time (RT) and post adjusted (Adj) versions are considered to highlight their potential benefits in the rainfall estimation at annual, monthly, and daily temporal scales. Three geomorphological climatic zones, i.e., plain, mountainous, and glacial are taken under considerations for the determination of relative potentials of these SREs over Pakistan at global and regional scales. All SREs, in general, have well captured the annual north-south rainfall decreasing patterns and rainfall amounts over the typical arid regions of the country. Regarding the zonal approach, the performance of all SREs has remained good over mountainous region comparative to arid regions. This poor performance in accurate rainfall estimation of all the six SREs over arid regions has made their use questionable in these regions. Over glacier region, all SREs have highly overestimated the rainfall. One possible cause of this overestimation may be due to the low surface temperature and radiation absorption over snow and ice cover, resulting in their misidentification with rainy clouds as daily false alarm ratio has increased from mountainous to glacial regions. Among RT products, CMORPH-RT is the most biased product. The Bias was almost removed on CMORPH-Adj thanks to the gauge adjustment. On a general way, all Adj versions outperformed their respective RT versions at all considered temporal scales and have confirmed the positive effects of gauge adjustment. CMORPH-Adj and TMPA-Adj have shown the best agreement with in situ data in terms of Bias, RMSE, and CC over the entire study area.     

BDA方案对台风背景高温天气预报的改进

广州地Ⅸ的高温天气主要是受副热带高压和台风外围下沉气流的影响所致.文中采用BDA(Bogus Data Assimila-tion)方法,探讨BDA方案对广州地区台风背景条件下高温预报的改进能力.选取2005年7月中旬广州地区出现的高温天气进行研究.这是比较典型的受副热带高压和台风(海棠)共同影响造成高温的天气过程.分析有无采用BDA方案的模式初始场.结果表明:采用BDA方案同化Bogus模型可以调整台风中心位置和强度,使所得到的初始场中心位置与观测更为接近,台风强度(气压梯度力、风速)比末用Bogus的情况强,与观测值更为接近.数值模拟的结果表明,采用了BDA方案的敏感试验可以更好地预撤台风路径和台风中心强度变化,从而更好地预报高温天气,对高温区分布、日平均温度大小等的预报都有改进.文中对引起这种预报差异的原因进行了讨论,并探讨高温预报改进的可能机制.大气下沉运动的增强是高温预报改进的主要原因.敏感试验由于广州中低层大气的水汽减少,大气的下沉增强,致使天空的云量减少,对太阳短波辐射的阻挡减小,从而地面吸收热量增多,温度升高,输送给大气的感热增加,大气气温升高.采用BDA方案可以改进模式在台风"海棠"过程对广州高温的预报.     

Roughness length of sea,sand, and snow

Profiles of wind speed in driving sand and snow show roughness length increasing as the square of the friction velocity, in accordance with Charnock's relation for the roughness length of the sea.     

Distribution,speciation, and budget of atmospheric mercury

Total gaseous mercury (TGM) concentrations over the Atlantic Ocean and over Central Europe were measured repeatedly in the years 1978–1981. The latitudinal TGM distribution showed a pronounced and reproducible interhemispherical difference with higher TGM concentrations in the Northern Hemisphere. TGM was found to be vertically well mixed within the troposphere. The TGM concentration seems to increase with time at a rate of 10±8%/yr in the Northern and 8±3%/yr in the Southern Hemisphere. Measurements of mercury speciation showed that elemental mercury is the main TGM component contributing more than 92% and 83% of TGM in marine and continental air, respectively. The tropospheric mercury burden was calculated to be 6×10⁹g. The interhemispheric distribution and temporal and spatial variability of TGM imply a tropospheric residence time of TGM of about 1 yr. Sink strengths calculated independently from the measured mercury concentration on particles and in rainwater are consistent with the above figures.     

On the Heat Islands of Washington,DC, and New York City,NY

Data collected in 2007 from a dense commercial network (operated by AWS Convergence Technologies, Inc.) of roof-mounted temperature sensors are used to explore the heat island characteristics of Washington, DC, and New York City, NY. Considerable spatial detail is revealed, but aggregating data in annuli centered on assumed central locations in the business districts of the two cities reveals that the heat islands extend out to more than 30 km, with the New York City island being somewhat larger. The results from both arrays reveal the influence of the surroundings, with large scatter of daytime results being characteristic of sites with the greatest local surface inhomogeneity. Nighttime data are more ordered, and suggest that surface air temperatures decrease by about 0.02°C km⁻¹ for the Washington case, and 0.04°C km⁻¹ for New York, with the winter behaviour being more pronounced than for other seasons. Scatter of the data in the daytime is a common feature for all seasons, but mainly for those with the strongest insolation. Comparison between working day and weekend temperatures provides convincing verification that the air responds quite slowly to changes in surface (radiometric) temperatures, with distance constants of the order of many tens of km. There appears to be a small wind speed effect, which is evident in the nighttime data but is largely obscured by scatter for the daytime.