Precambrian Shield Wetlands: Hydrologic Control of the Sources and Export of Dissolved Organic Matter

Most Precambrian Shield forested catchments have some wetland component. Even small riparian wetlands are important modifiers of stream chemistry. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is one of the most important products exported by wetlands in streams. Stratigraphic control of hydraulic conductivity generally leads to decreasing conductivity with depth. Thus important flowpaths occur in the uppermost organic rich layers and are reflected in chemical profiles of dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Accumulation of DOC in peat porewaters is the net effect of production, consumption and transport. DOC profiles vary with degree of interaction with the surrounding upland catchment and distance from the edge of the wetland as well as internal processes within the wetland. In wetlands, DOM production is offset by flushing resulting in decreasing DOC concentrations with increasing flows. Despite old carbon (2,000 to 3,000 years) at relatively shallow depths, 14C activity in DOC exported from wetlands is mostly modern (recent carbon), consistent with shallow flowpaths and export of DOM from shallow organic rich horizons. In contrast, the source area for DOM in upland catchments with developed B horizon soils increases with antecedent soil moisture conditions resulting in increasing DOC concentrations with higher stream flows. Activity of 14C in stream DOC from upland catchments span a range from low activities (older carbon) similar to B horizon soil water during dry moisture conditions to values slightly less than modern (more recent carbon) during high moisture conditions. The more modern carbon activities reflect the increased contribution of the organic rich litter and A horizon soil layers in the area immediately bordering the stream under wet antecedent moisture conditions. Reduced hydrologic export or loss of wetlands under drier climatic conditions may result in in larger fluctuations in stream DOC concentrations and reduced DOM loads to lakes.     

Uncertainty in Predicting the Effect of Climatic Change on the Carbon Cycling of Canadian Peatlands

Northern peatlands play an important role globally in the cycling of C, through the exchange of CO2 with the atmosphere, the emission of CH4, the production and export of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and the storage of C. Under 2 × CO2 GCM scenarios, most Canadian peatlands will be exposed to increases in mean annual temperature ranging between 2 and 6° C and increases in mean annual precipitation of 0 to 15 %, with the most pronounced changes occurring during the winter. The increase in CO2 uptake by plants, through warmer temperatures and elevated atmospheric CO2, is likely to be offset by increased soil respiration rates in response to warmer soils and lowered water tables. CH4 emissions are likely to decrease in most peatlands because of lowered water tables, except where the peat surface adjusts to fluctuating water tables, and in permafrost, where the collapse of dry plateau and palsa will lead to increase CH4 emission. There likely will be little change in DOC production, but DOC export to water bodies will decrease as runoff decreases. The storage of C in peatlands is sensitive to all C cycle components and is difficult to predict. The challenge is to develop quantitative models capable of making these predictions for different peatlands. We present some qualitative responses, with levels of uncertainty. There will be, however, as much variation in response to climatic change within a peatland as there will be among peatland regions.     

土壤溶解性有机碳测定方法与应用

溶解性有机碳是土壤圈中一种非常活跃的化学物质,它对土壤中化学物质的溶解、吸附、解吸、迁移和毒性等行为均有显著的影响。在现代土壤研究中,出现了与溶解性有机碳相关的众多术语,分析方法也各有不同。从溶解性有机碳、水溶性有机碳、活性有机碳、易氧化碳、微生物量碳、可矿化碳不同术语的角度,概述了这类碳分析意义和测定方法,以期对土壤有机质应用研究起到积极作用。     

Sensitivity of the Terrestrial Ecosystem to Precipitation and Temperature Variability over China

In this study, the sensitivities of net primary production （NPP）, soil carbon, and vegetation carbon to precipitation and temperature variability over China are discussed using the state-of-the-art Lund-Potsdam-Jena dynamic global vegetation model （LPJ DGVM）. The im- pacts of the sensitivities to precipitation variability and temperature variability on NPP, soil carbon, and vegeta- tion carbon are discussed. It is shown that increasing pre- cipitation variability, representing the frequency of ex- treme precipitation events, leads to losses in NPP, soil carbon, and vegetation carbon over most of China, espe- cially in North and Northeast China where the dominant plant functional types （i.e., those with the largest simu- lated areal cover） are grass and boreal needle-leaved for- est. The responses of NPP, soil carbon, and vegetation carbon to decreasing precipitation variability are opposite to the responses to increasing precipitation variability. The variations in NPP, soil carbon, and vegetation carbon in response to increasing and decreasing precipitation variability show a nonlinear asymmetry. Increasing pre- cipitation variability results in notable interannual variation of NPP. The sensitivities of NPP, soil carbon, and vegetation carbon to temperature variability, whether negative or positive, meaning frequent hot and cold days, are slight. The present study suggests, based on the LPJ model, that precipitation variability has a more severe impact than temperature variability on NPP, soil carbon, and vegetation carbon.     

Synergistic Effects of Nitrogen Amendments and Ethylene on Atmospheric Methane Uptake under a Temperate Old-growth Forest

An increase in atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition can promote soil acidification, which may increase the release of ethylene (C2H4) under forest floors. Unfortunately, knowledge of whether increasing N deposition and C2H4 releases have synergistic effects on soil methane (CH4) uptake is limited and certainly deserves to be examined. We conducted some field measurements and laboratory experiments to examine this issue. The addition of (NH4)2SO4 or NH4Cl at a rate of 45 kg N ha-1 yr-1 reduced the soil CH4 uptake under a temperate old-growth forest in northeast China, and there were synergistic effects of N amendments in the presence of C2H4 concentrations equal to atmospheric CH4 concentration on the soil CH4 uptake, particularly in the NH4Cl-treated plots. Effective concentrations of added C2H4 on the soil CH4 uptake were smaller in NH+4 -treated plots than in KNO3-treated plots. The concentration of ca 0.3 μl C2H4 L-1 in the headspace gases reduced by 20% soil atmospheric CH4 uptake in the NH4Cl-treated plots, and this concentration was easily produced in temperate forest topsoils under short-term anoxic conditions. Together with short-term stimulating effects of N amendments and soil acidification on C2H4 production from forest soils, our observations suggest that knowledge of synergistic effects of NH+4 , rather than NO3- , amendments and C2H4 on the in situ soil CH4 uptake is critical for understanding the role of atmospheric N deposition and cycling of C2H4 under forest floors in reducing global atmospheric CH4 uptake by forests. Synergistic functions of NH4+ -N deposition and C2H4 release due to soil acidification in reducing atmospheric CH4 uptake by forests are discussed.     

冻融作用对大兴安岭多年冻土区泥炭地土壤有机碳矿化的影响研究

冻融循环是影响土壤碳氮生物地球化学过程较为重要的因素。在全球变化背景下,冻融作用对冻土区土壤碳库稳定性及其关键生物地球化学过程影响研究是当前国际热点,尤其是冻融作用影响下多年冻土区泥炭地土壤有机碳矿化研究目前仍未明确。选取我国大兴安岭多年冻土区泥炭地表层（0~15 cm）和深层（15~30 cm）土壤,采用冻融试验及室内培养方法,探索分析了冻融作用影响下泥炭地土壤有机碳矿化特征,并从土壤活性碳和土壤酶活性角度阐述了影响机制。结果表明在短期的培养中,土壤有机碳矿化量在483~2836 mg/kg间波动,而冻融循环均显著降低了表层和深层土壤有机碳矿化量,并且对深层土壤有机碳的矿化抑制作用更为明显,高达76%。值得注意的是,冻融循环却明显促进了CH₄的排放,尤其是表层土壤,高达145%。冻融循环作用也显著增加了土壤可溶性有机碳（DOC）含量,但却降低了土壤微生物量碳（MBC）以及土壤纤维素酶、淀粉酶和蔗糖酶活性。冻融作用下低的土壤酶活性以及相对低质量碳是抑制土壤有机碳矿化的原因。全球变暖背景下,与单纯温度增加所导致的土壤有机碳矿化释放量相比,冻融循环作用能降低大兴安岭泥炭地活动层中土壤有机碳在短期内碳的释放。     

模拟氮沉降对温带阔叶红松林地氮素净矿化量的影响

采用埋置PVC管的树脂芯方法原位测定了不同氮形态及其剂量作用下长白山阔叶红松林地0～7 cm和0～15 cm土壤氮素净氨化、净硝化和净矿化量的季节和年际变化规律.近3年的观测结果表明,对照处理不同土层氮素年净矿化量中以净氨化占主导地位,约占净矿化量的53％～72％,高剂量NO3-N的输入使该比例减少至37％～66％,而NH4-N的输入却使该比例增至86％～92％.随着模拟氮沉降量增加,土壤氮素年净矿化量也随之增加,尤其外源NH+4-N输入对净矿化量的促进作用更为明显,但随着施肥年限的延长,这种促进作用逐渐减弱.与林地0～15 cm土壤相比,氮沉降量增加对0～7 cm土壤氮素净氨化和净矿化量的促进作用更为明显,尤其是NH4Cl处理的促进作用更大.通过将实验结果与前人报道的野外原位观测整合,逐步回归分析后发现土壤氮素年净矿化量随着氮素年沉降量的增加而增大,氮沉降量对不同区域森林土壤氮素年净矿化量的贡献率约为38％;大气氮沉降量、森林有机层pH及其碳/氮比值可解释不同区域森林表层土壤氮素年净矿化量一半的变化.研究结果将利于有效预测区域林地氮素净矿化量特征及其对环境变化的响应.     

The Potential Effects of Elevated Co2 and Climate Change on Tropical Forest Soils and Biogeochemical Cycling

Tropical forests are responsible for a large proportion of the global terrestrial C flux annually for natural ecosystems. Increased atmospheric CO₂ and changes in climate are likely to affect the distribution of C pools in the tropics and the rate of cycling through vegetation and soils. In this paper, I review the literature on the pools and fluxes of carbon in tropical forests, and the relationship of these to nutrient cycling and climate. Tropical moist and humid forests have the highest rates of annual net primary productivity and the greatest carbon flux from soil respiration globally. Tropical dry forests have lower rates of carbon circulation, but may have greater soil organic carbon storage, especially at depths below 1 meter. Data from tropical elevation gradients were used to examine the sensitivity of biogeochemical cycling to incremental changes in temperature and rainfall. These data show significant positive correlations of litterfall N concentrations with temperature and decomposition rates. Increased atmospheric CO₂ and changes in climate are expected to alter carbon and nutrient allocation patterns and storage in tropical forest. Modeling and experimental studies suggest that even a small increase in temperature and CO₂ concentrations results in more rapid decomposition rates, and a large initial CO₂ efflux from moist tropical soils. Soil P limitation or reductions in C:N and C:P ratios of litterfall could eventually limit the size of this flux. Increased frequency of fires in dry forest and hurricanes in moist and humid forests are expected to reduce the ecosystem carbon storage capacity over longer time periods.     

基于CGE模型的上海市碳排放交易的环境经济影响分析

通过应用上海市能源－环境-经济CGE模型,针对碳排放交易机制所涉及的重要要素,包括覆盖行业和分配方式等设计不同的情景,模拟了在不同的就业条件下碳排放交易机制对经济的影响和对传统污染物的协同减排效应。结果表明,如果碳交易纳管行业释放出来的劳动力能及时被其他行业吸纳和消化,则碳交易对GDP的整体影响为正,碳交易的实施产生了双重红利。若劳动力不能及时转移,则碳交易对GDP的整体影响为负,2020年不同情景下GDP损失为1.5%～2.4%;相比覆盖部分行业,在覆盖全部行业的情景下,碳价格最低,从2013年的30元/t增加到2020年的202元/t,对高耗能行业的竞争力影响相对较小,但是由于所有行业都纳入到纳管范围,使得对GDP的负面影响最大;此外,实施碳交易能明显改善环境效益,有助于推动SO₂和NO_X减排目标的实现。     

The effect of nitrogen fertilization on the COS and CS2 emissions from temperature forest soils

The net fluxes of carbonyl sulfide (COS) and carbon disulfide (CS₂) to the atmosphere from nitrogen amended and unamended deciduous and coniferous forest soils were measured during the spring of 1986. We found that emissions of these gases from acidic forest soils were substantially increased after nitrogen fertilization. The total (COS+CS₂) emissions were increased by nearly a factor of three in the hardwood stand and were more than doubled in the pine stand. Furthermore, vegetation type appeared to have an influence on which was the dominant sulfur gas released from the forest soils. The added nitrogen caused a dramatic increase in COS emissions from the hardwood stand (a factor of three increase), while CS₂ emissions from this site were not affected. We observed the opposite response in the pine stand; that is, the nitrogen fertilization had no affect on COS emissions, but did stimulate CS₂ emissions (a factor of more than nine increase).     

河北省贸易隐含二氧化碳排放及其影响因素研究

针对全球气候变化而引发国家间减排责任的争吵,需要各国从生产和消费的角度来认识二氧化碳排放,国家内部区域之间减排责任的分担也应该从生产和消费两个角度加以认识。为此,本文利用投入产出分析方法和EEBT(双边贸易隐含排放)核算方法核算河北省的二氧化碳排放,发现河北省生产型二氧化碳排放远大于其消费型二氧化碳排放,其中国内流出/流入引发的二氧化碳排放量较大。在利用SDA(结构分解分析法)分析影响贸易隐含二氧化碳排放变化因素时,发现行业二氧化碳排放强度变化对隐含二氧化碳排放具有积极影响,而国民经济行业之间技术经济关系的变化对隐含二氧化碳排放具有消极影响。因此,河北省在利用技术手段降低行业二氧化碳排放强度的同时,还要筛选关键性部门加以重点管理。同时,河北省贸易隐含二氧化碳排放及其影响因素变化对国家制定区域减排责任也有较强参考价值。     

Precipitation projections under GCMs perspective and Turkish Water Foundation (TWF) statistical downscaling model procedures

Insect outbreaks are major disturbances that affect a land area similar to that of forest fires across North America. The recent mountain pine bark beetle (D endroctonus ponderosae) outbreak and its associated blue stain fungi (Grosmannia clavigera) are impacting water partitioning processes of forests in the Rocky Mountain region as the spatially heterogeneous disturbance spreads across the landscape. Water cycling may dramatically change due to increasing spatial heterogeneity from uneven mortality. Water and energy storage within trees and soils may also decrease, due to hydraulic failure and mortality caused by blue stain fungi followed by shifts in the water budget. This forest disturbance was unique in comparison to fire or timber harvesting because water fluxes were altered before significant structural change occurred to the canopy. We investigated the impacts of bark beetles on lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) stand and ecosystem level hydrologic processes and the resulting vertical and horizontal spatial variability in energy storage. Bark beetle-impacted stands had on average 57 % higher soil moisture, 1.5 °C higher soil temperature, and 0.8 °C higher tree bole temperature over four growing seasons compared to unimpacted stands. Seasonal latent heat flux was highly correlated with soil moisture. Thus, high mortality levels led to an increase in ecosystem level Bowen ratio as sensible heat fluxes increased yearly and latent heat fluxes varied with soil moisture levels. Decline in canopy biomass (leaf, stem, and branch) was not seen, but ground-to-atmosphere longwave radiation flux increased, as the ground surface was a larger component of the longwave radiation. Variability in soil, latent, and sensible heat flux and radiation measurements increased during the disturbance. Accounting for stand level variability in water and energy fluxes will provide a method to quantify potential drivers of ecosystem processes and services as well as lead to greater confidence in measurements for all dynamic disturbances.     

成熟森林生态系统土壤有机碳积累:实现碳中和目标的一条重要途径

为了应对全球气候变化带来的挑战,2020年9月中国提出努力争取在2060年前实现碳中和。对此,生态系统固碳被寄予厚望;然而,生态学理论认为,成熟生态系统的碳输入输出趋于平衡,没有碳的净积累,也就没有碳汇功能,而未成熟的生态系统虽有碳的净积累并具有碳汇功能,但自然界任何未成熟生态系统从它建立的时候开始都在不断地向成熟生态系统演替,即任一生态系统演替的最终结果必然是碳输入输出达到平衡状态。由于森林生态系统碳库是陆地生态系统中最大的碳库,所以人们对其在碳中和上的贡献充满期待。本文以森林生态系统为例,分别考虑森林生态系统碳库的生物量碳库和土壤有机碳库,并基于全球最新研究成果,论证了森林生态系统土壤碳库积累过程具有长久的固碳功能,且不违背成熟生态系统碳输入输出趋于平衡的生态学理论,它能为实现碳中和目标做出贡献。     

Cross-scale ensemble projections of dissolved organic carbon dynamics in boreal forest streams

Climate is an important driver of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) dynamics in boreal catchments characterized by networks of streams within forest-wetland landscape mosaics. In this paper, we assess how climate change may affect stream DOC concentrations ([DOC]) and export from boreal forest streams with a multi-model ensemble approach. First, we apply an ensemble of regional climate models (RCMs) to project soil temperatures and stream-flows. These data are then used to drive two biogeochemical models of surface water DOC: (1) The Integrated Catchment model for Carbon (INCA-C), a detailed process-based model of DOC operating at the catchment scale, and (2) The Riparian Integration Model (RIM), a simple dynamic hillslope scale model of stream [DOC]. All RCMs project a consistent increase in temperature and precipitation as well as a shift in spring runoff peaks from May to April. However, they present a considerable range of possible future runoff conditions with an ensemble median increase of 31 % between current and future (2061–2090) conditions. Both biogeochemical models perform well in describing the dynamics of present-day stream [DOC] and fluxes, but disagree in their future projections. Here, we assess possible futures in three boreal catchments representative of forest, mire and mixed landscape elements. INCA-C projects a wider range of stream [DOC] due to its temperature sensitivity, whereas RIM gives consistently larger inter-annual variation and a wider range of exports due to its sensitivity to hydrological variations. The uncertainties associated with modeling complex processes that control future DOC dynamics in boreal and temperate catchments are still the main limitation to our understanding of DOC mechanisms under changing climate conditions. Novel, currently overlooked or unknown drivers may appear that will present new challenges to modelling DOC in the future.     

National Inventories of Terrestrial Carbon Sources and Sinks: The U.K. Experience

The U.K. has extensive databases on soils, land cover and historic land use change which have made it possible to construct a comprehensive inventory of the principal terrestrial sources and sinks of carbon for approximately the year 1990, using methods that are consistent with, and at least as accurate as, the revised 1996 guidelines recommended by IPCC where available – and including categories which are not currently considered under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. This country inventory highlights issues concerning methodology, uncertainty, double counting, the importance of soils and the relative magnitude of sources and sinks which are reported to the UNFCCC relative to other sources and sinks. The carbon sinks (negative values in MtC a^-1) for categories reported to the UNFCCC, based on the IPCC categories, were estimated to be: forest trees and litter (–2.1), U.K. forest products (–0.5, ignoring imports and exports), non-forest biomass (–0.3), forest soils (–0.1) and soils on set-aside land (–0.4). The carbon sources (positive values) reported under the UNFCCC were estimated to be: losses of soil organic carbon resulting from cultivation of semi-natural land (6.2) and from urbanization (1.6), drainage of peatlands (0.3) and fenlands (0.5), and peat extraction (0.2). A range of other sources and sinks not covered by the IPCC guidelines were also quantified, namely, the accumulation of carbon in undrained peatlands (–0.7, ignoring methane emission), sediment accretion in coastal marshes (–0.1), the possible U.K. share of the CO₂ and N fertilization carbon sink (–2.0) and riverine organic and particulate carbon export to the sea (1.4, which may be assumed to be a source if most of this carbon is released as CO₂ in the sea). All sinks totalled –6.2 and sources 10.2, giving a net flux to the atmosphere in 1990 of 4.0 MtC a^-1. Uncertainties associated with categories, mostly based on best guesses, ranged from ±15% for forest biomass and litter to ±60% for CO₂ and N fertilization.     

近地层臭氧对我国树木生产力和作物产量的影响:进展与展望

大气污染严重威胁了我国陆地生态系统的固碳能力,但随着减污降碳协同治理的快速推进,减缓大气污染将有利于提升陆地碳汇,并切实推动碳达峰碳中和目标的实现。为了更好地理解大气污染与生态系统固碳的关系,本文以主要空气污染物臭氧（O₃）为例,基于田间控制实验的整合分析、剂量响应关系及机理模型三种评估方法综述了近地层O₃污染对植被碳固定影响的最新进展。尽管不同作物种类以及品种、不同功能型木本植物对O₃的响应有着显著的差异,且各种方法的评估结果也不尽相同,但目前O₃浓度造成我国粮食作物减产、森林生产力降低已是不争的事实。持续升高的O₃浓度将严重威胁我国陆地生态系统的固碳能力。利用我国作物和树木的O₃剂量响应方程进行评估的结果表明,在CO₂减排和O₃污染协同治理下,预计2060年我国树木生物量和作物产量将比当前显著提高,增加陆地生态系统碳汇,助力碳中和目标。最后,对如何提高O₃污染环境下植物固碳能力也进行了展望。     

克拉玛依减排林区土地开发的效应

基于克拉玛依减排林区的土壤和地下水取样分析结果,应用生态系统服务价值的原理与方法,分析了克拉玛依减排林区的土地开发效应.结果表明土地开发已取得一定的正效应:已开发用地土壤有机质、有效N和速效K的质量分数均高于未开发用地,土地开发明显地改善了土壤的养分状况;土壤浅层总盐量降低67.5%,土壤盐渍化现象得到有效控制;林地生态系统服务价值高达1.5417×10⁹元/a.同时,土地开发也产生了一些负效应:地下水pH值、电导率、矿化度和全盐量均高于未开发用地,减排林区地下水化学特征不利于区域减排林效应的持续发挥;土壤有效P质量分数偏低,也不利于林区植被的生长.     

Challenges in the Application of Existing Process-Based Models to Predict the Effect of Climate Change on C Pools in Forest Ecosystems

Process-based models used to investigate forest ecosystem response to climate change were not necessarily developed to include the effect of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and temperature increases on physiological processes. Simulation of the impacts of climate change with such models may lead to questionable predictions. It is generally believed that significant shifts in the performance of black spruce (Picea mariana [Mill] B.S.P.) will occur under climate change. This species, which accounts for 64% of Ontario's coniferous growing stock and 80% of the annual allowable cut, represents important economic activity throughout the boreal forest region. Forest management planning requires relatively accurate productivity estimates. Thus, it is imperative to ensure that process-based models realistically predict the effect of climate change. In this study, CENTURY and FOREST-BGC models were calibrated for a productive, upland black spruce stand in northwestern Ontario. Even though both models predicted similar relative outcomes after 100 years of climate change, they disagreed on the impacts of temperature in combination with an increase in CO₂. Also, absolute amounts of carbon sequestered varied with climate change scenarios. Comparison of both models indicated that the representation of critical processes in these two forest ecosystem models is incomplete. For instance, the interactive effects of CO₂ and temperature increases on physiological processes at stand and soil levels are not well documented nor are they easily identifiable in the models. Their incorporation into models is therefore problematic. Practitioners must consequently be wary of assumptions about the inclusion of critical processes in models.     

Determining Effects of Area Burned and Fire Severity on Carbon Cycling and Emissions in Siberia

The Russian boreal forest contains about 25% of the global terrestrial biomass, and even a higher percentage of the carbon stored in litter and soils. Fire burns large areas annually, much of it in low-severity surface fires – but data on fire area and impacts or extent of varying fire severity are poor. Changes in land use, cover, and disturbance patterns such as those predicted by global climate change models, have the potential to greatly alter current fire regimes in boreal forests and to significantly impact global carbon budgets. The extent and global importance of fires in the boreal zone have often been greatly underestimated. For the 1998 fire season we estimate from remote sensing data that about 13.3 million ha burned in Siberia. This is about 5 times higher than estimates from the Russian Aerial Forest Protection Service (Avialesookhrana) for the same period. We estimate that fires in the Russian boreal forest in 1998 constituted some 14–20% of average annual global carbon emissions from forest fires. Average annual emissions from boreal zone forests may be equivalent to 23–39% of regional fossil fuel emissions in Canada and Russia, respectively. But the lack of accurate data and models introduces large potential errors into these estimates. Improved monitoring and understanding of the landscape extent and severity of fires and effects of fire on carbon storage, air chemistry, vegetation dynamics and structure, and forest health and productivity are essential to provide inputs into global and regional models of carbon cycling and atmospheric chemistry.     

Coupling a Terrestrial Biogeochemical Model to the Common Land Model

A terrestrial biogeochemical model (CASACNP) was coupled to a land surface model (the Common Land Model,CoLM) to simulate the dynamics of carbon substrate in soil and its limitation on soil respiration.The combined model,CoLM CASACNP,was able to predict long-term carbon sources and sinks that CoLM alone could not.The coupled model was tested using measurements of belowground respiration and surface fluxes from two forest ecosystems.The combined model simulated reasonably well the diurnal and seasonal variations of net ecosystem carbon exchange,as well as seasonal variation in the soil respiration rate of both the forest sites chosen for this study.However,the agreement between model simulations and actual measurements was poorer under dry conditions.The model should be tested against more measurements before being applied globally to investigate the feedbacks between the carbon cycle and climate change.