何谓“碳中和”?

2020年9月22日,在第75届联合国大会一般性辩论上,中国向全世界宣布将提高国家自主贡献力度,采取更加有力的政策和措施,CO2排放力争于2030年前达到峰值,努力争取2060年前实现碳中和[1]。目标提出后,引起全球研究者和政策制定者对碳中和目标范围及内涵的广泛讨论和关注。目前各国的长期目标中提出了碳中和及气候中和等多个相关概念,本文将对这些概念及其政策实践进行简单综述,以辨析碳中和目标的范围及内涵。     

基于碳中和及气候适应性原则的被动式建筑应用潜力研究——以重庆市为例

气候变化及其广泛影响推动世界各国实施碳中和战略。本文从碳中和建筑理论体系入手, 提出碳中和与气候适应性的建筑设计基本原则, 强调对被动式建筑全生命周期内的节能效益(运行碳)和实施成本(隐含碳)平衡的动态考量, 并且根据场域气候和城市形态特点, 关注被动式建筑对场域风、热、光等物理环境特征的适应与反馈。进一步从场域与气候、建筑类型、围护结构、通风、采光、可再生能源利用及其他技术方面, 识别重庆市被动式建筑的碳源/汇情景, 探讨重庆市“湿热、湿冷、弱风”气候特征下, 应用被动式策略降低建筑碳排放的潜力, 借此推动重庆市净零碳城市建设。     

成熟森林生态系统土壤有机碳积累:实现碳中和目标的一条重要途径

为了应对全球气候变化带来的挑战,2020年9月中国提出努力争取在2060年前实现碳中和。对此,生态系统固碳被寄予厚望;然而,生态学理论认为,成熟生态系统的碳输入输出趋于平衡,没有碳的净积累,也就没有碳汇功能,而未成熟的生态系统虽有碳的净积累并具有碳汇功能,但自然界任何未成熟生态系统从它建立的时候开始都在不断地向成熟生态系统演替,即任一生态系统演替的最终结果必然是碳输入输出达到平衡状态。由于森林生态系统碳库是陆地生态系统中最大的碳库,所以人们对其在碳中和上的贡献充满期待。本文以森林生态系统为例,分别考虑森林生态系统碳库的生物量碳库和土壤有机碳库,并基于全球最新研究成果,论证了森林生态系统土壤碳库积累过程具有长久的固碳功能,且不违背成熟生态系统碳输入输出趋于平衡的生态学理论,它能为实现碳中和目标做出贡献。     

碳中和行动的国际趋势分析

中国在第75届联合国大会一般性辩论上提出2060碳中和目标。考虑到已有研究较少关注碳中和或缺少对其国际形势的认识,文中梳理分析了全球31个碳中和承诺国的目标内容和政策法规文件。通过对国际碳中和行动的趋势分析和评述,认为碳中和正在成为全球气候行动关注的重要内容,对于推进全球应对气候变化具有积极意义;而欧盟等发达国家/地区目前在碳中和行动中起到关键引领作用。对于国际碳中和行动,建议敦促美国、印度等排放大国加入全球碳中和目标愿景;各国应加强碳中和技术战略和政策路径设计,并通过国际合作平台扩展碳中和行动和气候合作内容。对于中国碳中和承诺,建议加强典型国家碳中和策略的研究分析,借鉴碳中和行动引领国家的技术路径、政策措施,以及在低碳复苏、社会公平转型等方面的先进经验;开展国际碳中和行动的追踪研究,寻求国际气候合作交流机遇,积极应对国际气候治理形势的变化。     

不同情景达到碳中和下中国区域气候变化的预估

利用第6次耦合模式比较计划（CMIP6）中的9个全球气候模式的模拟结果,通过CO₂浓度达峰时间确定SSP1-1.9和SSP1-2.6两种情景下的全球碳中和时间,预估了全球碳中和下中国区域气候较历史参考期（1995—2014年）的未来变化,分析不同时间达到碳中和下气候响应差异,并与未实现碳中和的SSP2-4.5情景下的气候变化对比。结果表明,SSP1-1.9和SSP1-2.6情景下全球达到碳中和的时间分别为2041年和2063年,相较于历史参考期,SSP1-1.9/SSP1-2.6下中国区域平均年气温上升1.22/1.58℃,平均年降水量增加7.1％/9.9％。SSP1-2.6（晚碳中和）较SSP1-1.9（早碳中和）情景下年均温增高约0.36℃,最大升温区位于西南及高原地区。对降水而言,晚碳中和较早碳中和全国平均年降水量增加约2.7％。全年及夏季降水量显著增加区主要在西北,新疆地区出现降水增加超过8％的大值区,冬季则集中于黄河中下游,增幅也超过8％。未碳中和的SSP2-4.5情景下中国区域的升温显著强于SSP1-2.6（碳中和）情景,年平均气温高约0.61℃,西北地区是升温差别大值区,其中新疆部分地区增加升温超过0.8℃。SSP2-4.5较SSP1-2.6情景年降水量在西北地区增加显著,内蒙古西北部最大增加超过10％。有无碳中和对冬季降水影响更大,SSP2-4.5情景下新疆部分地区降水增加比SSP1-2.6下多20％左右,云南部分地区则少15％左右,表明有无碳中和对气候的影响远大于早晚碳中和。     

基于涡度相关法的中国农田生态系统碳通量研究进展

农田生态系统是受人为活动强烈控制和干扰的系统,对其碳源/汇的评价是全球碳循环研究的热点.首先概括了以涡度相关法为手段的中国农田生态系统碳通量的研究进展,重点总结了中国农田生态系统碳通量的时间变化、驱动机制和模型模拟等方面的研究成果,并在此基础上对今后中国农田生态系统碳通量研究提出了建议,认为长期观测与研究、多因子协同作用、模型开发与尺度推绎、数据质量监控和评价是今后研究的重点方向.     

主要发达经济体从碳达峰到碳中和的路径及启示

随着气候变化影响加剧,全球气候治理进程加速,实现碳达峰已经成为全球气候行动的核心,各国也相继制定碳中和目标并开展行动。中国在第75届联合国大会一般性辩论上提出了碳达峰碳中和目标,部分已实现碳达峰的发达经济体也提出了各自的碳中和承诺。文中从“整体-阶段”及“焦点-公平”视角分析了欧盟和美国等主要发达经济体碳达峰的历程和特点,以及其碳中和目标和规划。研究发现,发达经济体在碳达峰过程中普遍经历了较长的爬坡期（58~136年）和平台期（4~20年),在碳达峰时,发达经济体的能源结构以油气为主,油气占一次能源消费比重为57%~77%,其人均排放量、历史累计排放以及人均GDP也都处于较高水平,在碳达峰前后总体处于经济与碳排放脱钩状态。各发达经济体的碳中和路径均以能源转型为重点,采用了多元化的政策工具,并且注重低碳和负碳技术的革新。根据发达经济体的政策展望,在实现碳中和时,均难以将绝对排放量降为零,都需要通过碳移除手段进行抵消。通过对比分析,发现中国的碳达峰和碳中和目标是具有雄心的气候承诺,相较其他发达经济体需要付出更大努力。建议运用全面综合的政策工具支撑碳中和目标的有效落实,加快中国的气候立法,在兼顾公正转型的同时推动能源结构调整,注重可再生能源和能效方面的新技术开发应用。     

江苏省未来植被变化对“碳达峰、碳中和”的影响评价

在全国推进“碳达峰、碳中和”的政策背景下,包含碳汇的模型研究对指导减排具有重要意义。以江苏省为例,依据1997—2018年的年碳排放量数据建立ARIMA(5,2,0)模型,对2019—2060年的年碳排放量进行预测和估算。结果显示,江苏省年碳排放量在未来40 a内将保持波动上升的趋势。根据江苏省植被类型分布面积和相关植物的光合速率,得到每种植被类型的CO2年吸收总量,进一步分析不同植被变化下的减排方案,评价未来植被变化对“碳达峰、碳中和”的影响。在植被可增加面积有限且仅种植光合速率较大的经济林的条件下：1） 若2030年后CO2排放量保持不变,排放量应控制在2030年的26.94%,植被面积需增加1.078×109 m2才能在2060年顺利实现碳中和。2） 若2030年后每年CO2排放量与预测结果保持一致,2030年开始年排放量在预测结果的基础上减少81.06%,植被面积需增加1.081×109 m2,可在2060年顺利实现碳中和。3） 若2030年以后CO2排放量以2005年排放量为参考进行减排,并且减少到2005年排放量的75%以下时,不需要增加植被面积,也可在2060年顺利实现碳中和。     

碳中和目标下中国燃煤电厂CCUS集群部署优化研究

燃煤电厂作为中国最大的CO₂排放源,是中国实现碳中和目标的关键点。CO₂捕集、利用与封存（CCUS）技术是目前煤电行业实现深度减排的唯一途径,碳约束情景下,CCUS技术将在实现煤电碳达峰、碳中和目标中发挥不可或缺的作用。研究中首先使用综合环境控制模型（IECM）对燃煤电厂捕集技术环节的成本构成和经济性进行核算,得到中国燃煤电厂逐厂CO₂捕集成本和捕集量;其次,基于地质利用封存潜力及分布特征,构建CCUS源汇匹配优化模型,得到碳中和目标下的煤电CCUS项目分阶段布局方案;最后,以优化基础设施建设并通过规模经济降低成本为前提,使用聚类分析方法对煤电CCUS项目集群进行识别,进一步构建改进成本最小生成树模型,得到CCUS项目集群最低成本CO₂输送管道网络的路线优化策略。研究表明：碳中和目标约束下,需要对总装机容量约为355 GW的300个燃煤电厂进行CCUS技术改造,2030—2060年间可实现累积减排190.11 亿t CO₂。煤电CCUS项目集群主要分布在华中、华北和西北地区,通过建立CCUS枢纽以实现CO₂运输基础设施共享,在松辽盆地、渤海湾盆地、苏北盆地和鄂尔多斯盆地优先开展CCUS早期集成示范项目,能显著降低运输成本,推动CCUS技术大规模、商业化发展。     

中国碳中和目标内涵与实现路径综述

碳中和已成为引领中国中长期可持续发展的纲领性目标.通过对已有研究成果的梳理与评述,从目标内涵和实现路径两个方面探讨了"碳中和是一场广泛而深刻的经济社会系统性变革"这一重要命题.中国碳中和目标与全球温控2℃/1.5℃目标内涵一致,需要以阶段性减排成效为基础制定中期行动方案来逐步实现长期减排目标.作为实现碳中和目标的两个主...     

Delayed carbon sequestration and rising carbon prices

We set out a dynamic model to investigate optimal time paths of emissions, carbon stocks and carbon sequestration by land conversion, allowing for non-instantaneous carbon sequestration. Previous research in a dynamic general equilibrium framework, assuming instantaneous carbon sequestration, has shown that land conversion should take place as soon as possible. On the contrary, previous research within a partial equilibrium framework has shown that, with increasing carbon prices, it is optimal to delay carbon sequestration through land conversion. We show that land use change alternatives, e.g. reforestation, have to be used as soon as possible before the singular path is reached, i.e. the unique trajectory that brings the system to the steady-state. We also show that faster increasing carbon prices can induce a reduction in the rate of reforestation, and that this may take place after an initial phase of increased reforestations or even immediately, depending upon the shape of the increase in carbon prices. Finally, we show that the type of species used is relevant and that the land conversion rate gets smaller the longer it takes the trees to grow. We analyze four different carbon accounting methods, describing the conditions that make them efficient and discussing the comparative advantages of each of them.     

Biological carbon sequestration and carbon trading re-visited

Biological activities that sequester carbon create CO₂ offset credits that could obviate the need for reductions in fossil fuel use. Credits are earned by storing carbon in terrestrial ecosystems and wood products, although CO₂ emissions are also mitigated by delaying deforestation, which accounts for one-quarter of anthropogenic CO₂ emissions. However, non-permanent carbon offsets from biological activities are difficult to compare with each other and with emissions reduction because they differ in how long they prevent CO₂ from entering the atmosphere. This is the duration problem. It results in uncertainty and makes it hard to determine the legitimacy of biological activities in mitigating climate change. Measuring, verifying and monitoring the carbon sequestered in sinks greatly increases transaction costs and leads to rent seeking by sellers of dubious sink credits. While biological sink activities undoubtedly help mitigate climate change and should not be neglected, it is shown that there are limits to the substitutability between temporary offset credits from these activities and emissions reduction, and that this has implications for carbon trading. A possible solution to inherent incommensurability between temporary and permanent credits is also suggested.     

Biofuels and carbon management

Public policy supports biofuels for their benefits to agricultural economies, energy security and the environment. The environmental rationale is premised on greenhouse gas (GHG, “carbon”) emissions reduction, which is a matter of contention. This issue is challenging to resolve because of critical but difficult-to-verify assumptions in lifecycle analysis (LCA), limits of available data and disputes about system boundaries. Although LCA has been the presumptive basis of climate policy for fuels, careful consideration indicates that it is inappropriate for defining regulations. This paper proposes a method using annual basis carbon (ABC) accounting to track the stocks and flows of carbon and other relevant GHGs throughout fuel supply chains. Such an approach makes fuel and feedstock production facilities the focus of accounting while treating the CO₂ emissions from fuel end-use at face value regardless of the origin of the fuel carbon (bio- or fossil). Integrated into cap-and-trade policy and including provisions for mitigating indirect land-use change impacts, also evaluated on an annual basis, an ABC approach would provide a sound carbon management framework for the transportation fuels sector.     

Characteristics of forest carbon credit transactions in the voluntary carbon market

The voluntary carbon market allows participants to go beyond regulatory carbon offsetting. Recent developments have improved the transparency and credibility of voluntary carbon trading, and forest carbon credit transactions constitute more than half of trade volume. Its workings, however, have not been sufficiently explored in the literature. This study analyses the characteristics of forest carbon credit transactions in the voluntary carbon market using frequency analysis and logistic regression analysis. The results reveal that the co-benefits of forest carbon projects are an important factor influencing carbon credit transactions. From the higher transaction ratio of credits from CCB Standards-labelled projects and projects using co-benefit-oriented standards, it can be inferred that credits with potential for co-benefits (e.g. fostered corporate social responsibility, social cohesion of local communities and voluntary leadership, and positive environmental impacts) are preferred to those focusing exclusively on emission reduction in the voluntary carbon market. The findings of this study suggest that developing co-benefits is important for strengthening the market competitiveness of forest carbon credits in the voluntary carbon market. Additionally, unlike the compliance carbon market, in the voluntary carbon market stringent carbon standards do not always guarantee credit transaction performance.

POLICY RELEVANCE

After UNFCCC COP-21, the global society agreed to acknowledge various forms of international carbon crediting mechanisms, and noted the significance of greenhouse gas emissions reduction for sustainable development and environmental integrity through the Paris Agreement. Moreover, the agreement encouraged both REDD+ activities in developing countries and supports from developed countries. Additionally, co-benefits of forest carbon projects are important for credit transaction in the global voluntary carbon market. Under the new climate regime, co-benefits of forest carbon projects are expected to gain attention in the carbon market. To promote the social, economic, and environmental co-benefits of forest carbon projects, the introduction of an objective co-benefit assessment and certification system should be reviewed at the national level.     

Deforestation,biomass and carbon finance in Amazonia

Biomass dynamics in Amazonia are quantified and the value that carbon finance could deliver from slowing deforestation is assessed. Above-ground forest biomass in the Legal Amazon shrank from 90 Pg to 76 Pg between 1978 and 2004. An average decrease of 0.64 Pg (standard error 0.38 Pg) per year was estimated for primary and econdary vegetation. For an improved, spatially and temporally explicit estimation, a time series of remote-sensing results and a model of secondary forest area and age distribution was combined with a large-scale forest-growth model. The observed trend of biomass decline is continuous and defines a baseline that the avoidance of deforestation could be measured against. Based on scenario calculations, the emission reductions from slightly reduced deforestation rates could be valued in the range of €1 billion annually. Carbon finance for reducing emissions from deforestation (‘avoided deforestation’), which is being discussed as an additional mechanism under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol, has the potential to alter the economic logic driving forest conversion.     

Credible commitment in carbon policy

In this article the problem of credible commitment in carbon policy is discussed. Investors favour long-term predictability of the policy, but without any external enforcement mechanisms a commitment made by a government can be withdrawn, leading to scepticism and lack of credibility. This results in increased market risks and investment hold-up. Regulatory uncertainty stems from (i) strategic interactions between government and firms, (ii) potential learning about climate damage and abatement cost and (iii) political volatility. Although commitment to future policy encourages private investment, it also imposes costs in the form of reduced flexibility to accommodate new information or preferences. The article reviews devices that may help policy makers raise the level of commitment while also leaving some room for flexible adjustments. In particular, legislation of a long-term governance framework, delegation to an independent carbon agency and securitization of investors' stakes in emission markets offer palliative approaches.