Comparison of Three Tropical Cyclone Intensity Datasets

Analyzed in this paper are the 16-yr (1988-2003) tropical cyclone (TC) intensity data from three major forecast centers of the western North Pacific, i.e., China Meteorological Administration (CMA), Regional Specialized Meteorological Center Tokyo (RSMC Tokyo), and Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) of the United States. Results show that there are significant discrepancies (at 1% significance level) in the intensity of TCs among the three centers, with a maximum difference for the same TC over 30 m s-1. The flight reconnaissance over TC can minish the discrepancy to some extent. A climatic and persistent prediction model is set up to study the impact of initial data from different forecast centers on the prediction of TC intensity. It is obtained that the root mean square error (RMSE) of a 4-yr independent test is the largest using data from JTWC, while the smallest using data from RSMC Tokyo. Average absolute deviation in 24-h intensity prediction is 2.5 m s-1 between CMA and RSMC Tokyo data, and 4.0 m s-1 between CMA and JTWC data, with a maximum deviation reaching 21 m s-1. Such a problem in the initial value increases the difficulty in intensity prediction of TCs over the western North Pacific.     

DIFFERENCES AMONG DIFFERENT DATABASES IN THE NUMBER OF TROPICAL CYCLONES FORMING OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC

As shown in comparisons of the characteristics of inter-annual and inter-decadal variability and periodical changes in the number of tropical cyclones forming over the western North Pacific by three major forecast centers, i.e. China Meteorological Administration (CMA), Regional Specialized Meteorological Center of Tokyo (JMA) and Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) of Guam, there are the following important points. (1) Climatology of tropical cyclone (TC) or typhoon (TC on the intensity of TS or stronger) shows some difference in tropical cyclone frequency among the centers, which is more notable with TC than with typhoon. Both of them are more at the database of CMA than at those of the other two centers. (2) The difference is too significant to ignore in the inter-annual variability of tropical cyclone frequency between CMA and JTWC, which mainly results from the obvious difference in the inter-annual variability of the number of generated tropical depression (TD) between the two databases. The difference is small in the inter-annual variability of TS formations among all the three databases, and consistence is good between JMA and CMA or JTWC. (3) Though differences are not significant in the periodical variation of TC formations between CMA and JTWC, they are markedly apart in the inter-decadal variability, which is mainly shown by an anti-phase during the 1990s. (4) Non-homogeneity may exist around the late stage of the 1960s in the data of tropical cyclone frequency.     

COMPARISON OF SOME TROPICAL CYCLONE DATASETS AND CORRECTION OF YEARBOOK DATA

This is a study to compare three selected tropical cyclone datasets separately compiled by CMA Shanghai Typhoon Institute (CMA_SHI), the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC), and the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA). The annual frequencies, observation times and destructive power index as the characteristic quantities are investigated of the tropical cyclones over the western North Pacific. The comparative study has resulted in the following findings: 1) Statistical gaps between the datasets compared are narrowing down as the intensity of tropical cyclones increases. 2) In the context of interdecadal distribution, there is for the 1950s a relatively large gap between the datasets, as compared with a narrowed gap for the period from the mid 1970s to the 1980s, and a recurring widened gap for the mid and late 1990s. Additionally, an approach is proposed in the paper to correct the wind speed data in the TC Yearbook.     

COMPARISONS OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES EXPERIENCING EXTRATROPICAL TRANSITION IN THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC BASED ON DIFFERENT DATASETS

The differences in the climatology of extratropical transition(ET) of western North Pacific tropical cyclones(TCs) were investigated in this study using the TCs best-track datasets of China Meteorological Administration(CMA),Japan Meteorological Agency(JMA) and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center(JTWC). The results show that the ET identification, ET completion time, and post-ET duration reported in the JTWC dataset are greatly different from those in CMA and JMA datasets during 2004-2010. However, the key differences between the CMA and JMA datasets from 1951 to 2010 are the ET identification and the post-ET duration, because of inconsistent objective ET criteria used in the centers. Further analysis indicates that annual ET percentage of CMA was lower than that of JMA, and exhibited an interannual decreasing trend, while that of JMA was an unchanged trend. The western North Pacific ET events occurred mainly during the period June to November. The latitude of ET occurrence shifted northward from February to August,followed by a southward shift. Most of ET events were observed between 35°N and 45°N. From a regional perspective,TCs tended to undergo ET in Japan and the ocean east to it. It is found that TCs which experienced the ET process at higher latitudes were generally more intense at the ET completion time. TCs completing the ET overland or offshore were weaker than those finishing the ET over the ocean. Most of the TCs weakened 24 h before the completion of ET.In contrast, 21%(27%) of the TCs showed an intensification process based on the CMA(JMA) dataset during the post-ET period. The results presented in this study indicate that consistent ET determination criteria are needed to reduce the uncertainty involved in ET identification among the centers.     

NUMERICAL STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE ON TROPICAL CYCLONE INTENSITY-PART I:NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT OF THE TROPICAL CYCLONE INTENSITY RELATED TO SST Duan Yihong;Qin Zenghao;Gu dianfeng;Li Yongping, Shanghai Typhoon Institute.Shangh

In the context of a model of tropical cyclone intensity based on an improved meso-scaleatmospheric model, numerical simulation is performed of the track and intensity variation oftropical cyclones (TC) arising from sea surface temperature (SST) variation over a specified searegion. Evidence suggests that the model is capable of modeling quite welt the track and intensityof TC: SST variation leads to an abrupt change in the cyclone intensity: the response of thecyclone to the abrupt SST change lasts 8—12 h.     

A Statistical Analysis on the Effect of Vertical Wind Shear on Tropical Cyclone Development

Using tropical cyclone (TC) best track and intensity of the western North Pacific data from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) of the United States and the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data for the period of 1992-2002, the effects of vertical wind shear on TC intensity are examined. The samples were limited to the westward or northwestward moving TCs between 5°N and 20°N in order to minimize thermodynamic effects. It is found that the effect of vertical wind shear between 200 and 500 hPa on TC intensity change is larger than that of the shear between 500 and 850 hPa, while similar to that of the shear between 200 and 850 hPa. Vertical wind shear may have a threshold value, which tends to decrease as TC intensifies. As the intensifying rate of TC weakens, the average shear increases. The large shear has the obvious trend of inhibiting TC development. The average shear of TC which can develop into typhoon (tropical depression or tropical storm) is below 7 m s-1 (above 8 m s-1).     

VERIFICATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONE RAINFALL PREDICTIONS FROM CMA AND JMA GLOBAL MODELS

The number of tropical cyclone (TC) genesis over the South China Sea and the Northwest Pacific Ocean in 2009 is significantly less than the average (27.4). However, the number of landfall TC over mainland China and its associated rainfall is more than the average. This paper focuses on the performance of numerical weather prediction (NWP) of landfall TC precipitation over China in 2009. The China Meteorological Administration (CMA) and Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) models are compared. Although the schemes of physical processes, the data assimilation system and the dynamic frame are entirely different for the two models, the results of forecast verification are similar to each other for TC rainfall and track except for TC Goni. In this paper, a day with daily rainfall amount greater than 50 mm was selected as a storm rain day when there was a TC affecting the mainland. There are 32 storm rain days related to the landing of typhoons and tropical depressions. The rainfall forecast verification methods of National Meteorological Centre (NMC) of CMA are selected to verify the models’ rainfall forecast. Observational precipitation analyses related to TCs in 2009 indicate a U-shape spatial distribution in China. It is found that the rain belt forecasted by the two models within 60 hours shows good agreement with observations, both in the location and the maximum rainfall center. Beyond 3 days, the forecasted rainfall belt shifts northward on average, and the rainfall amount of the model forecasts becomes under-predicted. The rainfall intensity of CMA model forecast is more reasonable than that of JMA model. For heavy rain, the JMA model made more missing forecasts. The TC rainfall is verified in Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian and Hainan where rainfall amount related to TCs is relatively larger than in other regions. The results indicate that the model forecast for Guangdong and Guangxi is more skillful than that for Hainan. The rainfall forecast for Hainan remains difficult for the models because of insufficient observation data and special tropical ocean climate.     

EFFECTS OF VERTICAL WIND SHEAR ON TROPICAL CYCLONE INTENSITY CHANGE

The effects of vertical wind shear on tropical cyclone (TC) intensity change are examined based on the TC data from the China Meteorological Administration and the NCEP reanalysis daily data from 2001 to 2006. First, the influence of wind shear between different vertical levels and averages in different horizontal areas are compared. The results indicate that the effect of wind shear between 200 and 850 hPa averaged within a 200–800 km annulus on TC intensity change is larger than any other calculated vertical wind shear. High-latitude and intense TCs tend to be less sensitive to the effects of VWS than low-latitude and weak TCs. TCs experience time lags between the imposition of the shear and the weakening in TC intensity. A vertical shear of 8–9 m/s (9–10 m/s) would weaken TC intensity within 60 h (48 h). A vertical shear greater than 10 m/s would weaken TC intensity within 6 h. Finally, a statistical TC intensity prediction scheme is developed by using partial least squares regression, which produces skillful intensity forecasts when potential predictors include factors related to the vertical wind shear. Analysis of the standardized regression coefficients further confirms the obtained statistical results.     

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF POYANG LAKE''S INFLUENCE ON TROPICAL CYCLONES

Based on the Tropical Cyclone(TC briefly thereafter)Yearbook 1980-2009,this paper first analyzes the number and intensity change of the TCs which passed directly over or by the side of Poyang Lake(the distance of TC center is less than 1°longitude or 1°latitude from the Lake)among all the landfalling TCs in China during the past 30 years.Two cases are examined in detail in this paper.One is severe typhoon Rananim with a speed of 3.26 m/s and a change of 1 hPa in intensity when it was passing the Lake.The other is super typhoon Saomai with a faster moving speed of 6.50 m/s and a larger change in intensity of 6 hPa.Through numerical simulation experiments,this paper analyzes how the change of underlying surface from water to land contributes to the differences in intensity,speed and mesoscale convection of the two TCs when they passed the Lake.Results show that the moisture and dynamic condition above the Lake were favorable for the maintenance of the intensity when Rananim was passing through Poyang Lake,despite the moisture supply from the ocean was cut off.As a result,there was strong convection around the lake which led to a rainfall spinning counter-clockwise as it was affected by the TC movement.However,little impact was seen in the Saomai case.These results indicate that for the TCs coming ashore on Poyang Lake with a slow speed,the large water body is conducive to the sustaining of the intensity and strengthening of the convection around the TC center and the subsequent heavy rainfall.On the contrary,a fast-moving TC is less likely to be influenced by the underlying surface in terms of intensity and speed.     

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIABILITY OF NORTHWEST PACIFIC TROPICAL CYCLONE ACTIVITY IN A GLOBAL WARMING SCENARIO

Utilizing the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) and Tokyo-Typhoon Center of the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA RSMC TOKYO) best-track tropical cyclone (TC) data for the period 1951–2014, variations in spatial and temporal characteristics of Northwest Pacific TC activity for a global warming scenario are discussed. The results suggest that since the early 1960s, there has been an overall decreasing trend in the frequency of occurrence, intensity, peak intensity, length of movement, and lifetime of TCs. However, global warming has led to a linearly increasing trend in TC activity in eastern Asia, which indicates that Northwest Pacific TC activity decreases, but the frequency of landfalls and intensity are likely strengthened. Therefore, the threat of TCs towards eastern Asia is enhanced. The increase in TC activity in eastern Asia is likely the result of a strengthened Walker circulation due to an increasing temperature gradient between the northwest Pacific Ocean and the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. The strengthening Walker circulation could increase the magnitude of the vertical wind shear, relative vorticity, and meridional wind shear of low-level easterlies near the equator in the tropical Northwest Pacific, which affects the spatial and temporal variations of TC activity in the Northwest Pacific.     

热带气旋强度资料的差异性分析

通过对比西北太平洋3个主要预报中心(中国气象局(CMA)、日本东京台风中心(RSMC Tokyo)和美国联合台风警报中心(JTWC))的16 a数据,分析了不同来源的热带气旋(TC)强度资料的差异性。结果表明:CMA与RSMCTokyo和JTWC的TC强度均值分别相差0.6和1.7 m/s,均通过1%信度的统计检验,即存在显著差异;3个中心对同一TC确定的强度最大差异超过30 m/s;CMA资料的台风数多于RSMC Tokyo和JTWC,年台风频数的均方差也最大,但是3个中心资料的各级TC频数差异均无统计显著性。对比有、无飞机探测时段的资料发现,对TC进行飞机探测可在一定程度上减小各中心在确定TC强度方面的分歧。为了初步了解上述资料问题对TC强度预报的可能影响,采用一个气候持续性预报方法,取不同来源的TC强度资料进行了4 a(2000—2003年)的预报。发现据JTWC资料所得TC强度预报有最大的均方根误差,RSMCTokyo的最小,CMA居中;据CMA和RSMC Tokyo(CMA和JTWC)资料,对相同TC相同时次24 h预报的平均绝对偏差达2.5(4.0)m/s,最大可相差16(21)m/s。可见,西北太平洋TC强度的基本资料问题增加了预报的难度。     

西北太平洋热带气旋生成数在不同资料集上的差异性比较

比较分析中国气象局(CMA)、美国台风联合警报中心(JTWC)和日本RSMC Tokyo台风中心(JMA)台风资料频次的年际、年代际变化和周期变化特征,结果表明,不同资料中心的热带气旋(TC)、台风(TS强度及以上的TC)生成数的气候值存在一定的差异,热带气旋生成数的差异较为明显,台风生成数的差异相对要小,CMA资料中热带气旋、台风生成数相对偏多;CMA与JTWC间热带气旋生成数年际间变化差异显著而难以忽略,其差异主要来自TD生成数的明显不同;三个中心关于台风生成数的一致性比较好,其中JMA台风资料与另外两个中心资料间的一致更好;CMA与JTWC西北太平洋热带气旋生成数的周期变化间无明显差异,但年代际间变化有明显差异,主要表现为1990年代的反位相;台风生成数资料可能在1960年代后期存在非均一性。     

基于ECMWF海平面气压场的热带气旋路径预报效果检验

将三次样条插值方法应用到欧洲中心(ECMWF)海平面气压场(24～120 h)进行热带气旋(TC)中心定位定强和误差计算,并与同期美国联合台风警报中心(JTWC)、日本气象厅(JMA)和中国中央气象台(CMO)综合预报进行路径误差对比分析。结果表明:72 h以内预报以JTWC表现最好,其次是JMA的综合预报,ECMWF客观预报最差,但ECMWF对于96 h和120 h的热带气旋(TC)中期路径趋势比JTWC综合预报有更好的参考价值。ECMWF对24～120 h TC中心定强偏高15～20 hPa。分别统计08时和20时TC路径预报误差发现,24 h和48 h二者没有差异,而72～120 h 20时预报水平好于08时。     

1999—2003年西北太平洋热带气旋综合预报的误差分析

应用1999—2003年中国中央气象台 (CMO)、日本气象厅 (JMA) 以及美国联合台风警报中心 (JTWC) 发布的西北太平洋热带气旋综合预报资料, 从总误差、逐年误差趋势、不同海区误差、不同路径趋势误差、不同强度趋势误差等5个方面对各预报中心的路径及强度预报结果进行分析, 结果表明:5年总的平均误差以JTWC的路径预报误差最小, 而JMA的强度预报较准确; 在不同海域, 各预报中心的路径预报能力各有优势, 但在热带气旋的强度预报方面, JMA的方法在各海区都较稳定; 对不同路径趋势热带气旋的预报方面, 除了南海转向热带气旋的路径预报比JMA和CMO稍差一些之外, JTWC的路径预报在大多数情况下都是好于或相当于JMA和CMO; 在不同强度变化趋势热带气旋的预报方面, JTWC在大多数情况下都优于其他中心。上述结果帮助业务和科技人员全面了解各预报中心的预报能力优劣, 也为今后改进我国的热带气旋预报提供有益的参考。     

登陆台湾岛热带气旋强度和结构变化的统计分析

利用1949—2008年共60年的《台风年鉴》、《热带气旋年鉴》资料及CMA-STI热带气旋最佳路径数据集,2001—2008年美国联合台风警报中心(JTWC)热带气旋尺度相关资料及日本气象厅(JMA)的TBB资料,统计分析西北太平洋(包括南海)热带气旋(TC)在登陆台湾过程中强度和结构变化的基本特征,主要结论有:(1)TC登陆台湾时强度为台风及以上级别的样本数占总样本数约60%,主要出现在6—9月,东部登陆TC的强度一般比在西部登陆的强;(2)大部分TC在岛上维持6 h左右,登陆时最大风速≤5级和强度为超强台风的TC穿越台湾岛时移动比较缓慢;(3)126个登陆台湾的TC样本过岛后近中心海平面气压平均增加5.61 hPa,近中心最大风速平均减小3.58 m/s,在台湾东部地区登陆TC的衰减率比在西部登陆的大3倍左右;(4)TC在登陆台湾前6 h至离岛后6 h期间其8级和10级风圈半径均明显减小,TC形状略呈长轴为NE-SW向的椭圆状,而其最大风速的半径却逐渐增大;(5)TBB分析结果显示,TC登陆台湾前,其外围对流主要出现在南侧和西侧,结构不对称,登陆以后,TC北部及东部的对流显著发展,外围结构区域对称;但中心附近的强对流则从登陆前6 h开始逐渐减弱消失。表明TC穿越台湾过程中内核结构松散、强度减弱。     

西北太平洋热带气旋达到不同强度时所处位置的变化趋势研究

本文利用美国联合台风预警中心（JTWC)、中国气象局上海台风研究所（CMA）及日本气象厅东京台风中心（JMA）3 套热带气旋（TC）数据集,分别选取TC 达到生命史极值强度时、达到台风等级时以及达到热带风暴等级时所在的位置作为研究指标,分析了1980—2013 年5—11 月西北太平洋TC 达到不同强度时所在位置的长期变化趋势。研究得出如下结论：西北太平洋TC 在达到生命史极值强度时所处的位置表现为显著向北移动的趋势,3 个不同数据集向北移动趋势值分别为90、93、113 km/10a。同时TC 在达到台风和热带风暴级别时还存在相对明显的向北和向西移动趋势。本文进一步从环境场出发,分析了垂直风切变、海表温度以及潜在生成指数等影响因子的变化特征,为TC达不同强度时所处位置的长期变化趋势给出可能的物理解释。