Modeling the relative roles of the foehn wind and urban expansion in the 2002 Beijing heat wave and possible mitigation by high reflective roofs

Rapid urbanization has intensified summer heat waves in recent decades in Beijing, China. In this study, effectiveness of applying high-reflectance roofs on mitigating the warming effects caused by urban expansion and foehn wind was simulated for a record-breaking heat wave occurred in Beijing during July 13–15, 2002. Simulation experiments were performed using the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF version 3.0) model coupled with an urban canopy model. The modeled diurnal air temperatures were compared well with station observations in the city and the wind convergence caused by urban heat island (UHI) effect could be simulated clearly. By increasing urban roof albedo, the simulated UHI effect was reduced due to decreased net radiation, and the simulated wind convergence in the urban area was weakened. Using WRF3.0 model, the warming effects caused by urban expansion and foehn wind were quantified separately, and were compared with the cooling effect due to the increased roof albedo. Results illustrated that the foehn warming effect under the northwesterly wind contributed greatly to this heat wave event in Beijing, while contribution from urban expansion accompanied by anthropogenic heating was secondary, and was mostly evident at night. Increasing roof albedo could reduce air temperature both in the day and at night, and could more than offset the urban expansion effect. The combined warming caused by the urban expansion and the foehn wind could be potentially offset with high-reflectance roofs by 58.8 % or cooled by 1.4 °C in the early afternoon on July 14, 2002, the hottest day during the heat wave.     

成都地区夏季城市热岛变化及其与城市发展的关系

利用2000-2010年MODIS地表温度产品影像,结合DMSP/OLS夜间灯光数据,分析了成都地区夏季城市温度场及其城市热岛变化的分布特征及其演变规律。结果表明：随着城市化加快,成都地区夏季热环境发生了较大变化,整个区域以中温区向次高温区转换为主。成都地区热岛效应昼夜变化较大：白天热岛面积不断增大,与周围卫星城热岛连成一体,2000年和2010年城市热岛对区域的增温贡献分别为0.13℃和0.29℃,变化量达0.16℃,夜间并不存在大面积强热岛区。旧城区内城市热岛面积有所增加,但不显著,城市扩展区内热岛的规模显著增大,2010年较2000年新增强热岛区域面积166.43 km²,变化幅度达54%。高城市化水平的成都市地区的日较差相对于周边低城市化水平地区明显减少。同时,城市热岛还与人口的平方根具有很好的正相关关系,成都地区非农业人口规模每增长100万人,热岛效应强度增加0.4℃。     

Regional simulations to quantify land use change and irrigation impacts on hydroclimate in the California Central Valley

In this study, the influence of land use change and irrigation in the California Central Valley is quantified using the Pennsylvania State University/National Center for Atmospheric Research fifth generation Mesoscale Model (MM5) coupled with the Community Land Model version 3 (CLM3). The simulations were forced with modern-day and presettlement land use types at 30-km spatial resolution for the period 1 October 1995 to 30 September 1996. This study shows that land use change has significantly altered the structure of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) that affects near-surface temperature. In contrast, many land-use change studies indicate that albedo and evapotranspiration variations are the key processes influencing climate at local-to-regional scales. Our modeling results show that modern-day daily maximum near-surface air temperature (Tmax) has decreased due to agricultural expansion since presettlement. This decrease is caused by weaker sensible heat flux resulting from the lower surface roughness lengths associated with modern-day crops. The lower roughness lengths in the Central Valley also result in stronger winds that lead to a higher PBL. The higher PBL produces stronger sensible heat flux, causing nighttime warming. In addition to land use change, cropland irrigation has also affected hydroclimate processes within the California Central Valley. We generated a 10-member MM5-CLM3 ensemble simulation, where each ensemble member was forced by a fixed volumetric soil water content (SWC) between 3% and 30%, at 3% intervals, over the irrigated areas during a spring?Csummer growing season, 1 March to 31 August 1996. The results show that irrigation lowers the modern-day cropland surface temperature. Daytime cooling is produced by irrigation-related evaporation enhancement. This increased evaporation also dominates the nighttime surface cooling process. Surface cooling and the resulting weaker sensible heat flux further lower the near-surface air temperature. Thus, irrigation strengthens the daytime near-surface air temperature reduction that is caused by land use change, and a similar temperature change is seen for observations over irrigated cropland. Based on our modeling results, the nighttime near-surface warming induced by land use change is alleviated by low-intensity irrigation (17%?<?SWC?<?19%), but such warming completely reverses to a cooling effect under high-intensity irrigation (SWC?>?19%). The land use changes discussed in this study are commonly observed in many regions of the world, and the physical processes identified here can be used to better understand temperature variations over other areas with similar land cover changes.     

太原城市下垫面扩张对边界层特征影响的个例研究

通过高分辨率卫星夜间灯光数据获取最新的城市地表分布,并利用高分辨率数值模式对2013年8月14~16日太原区域的一次高温过程进行研究,探讨城市下垫面扩张对大气边界层的影响。结果表明：基于DMSP/OLS夜间灯光数据对模式中地表参数修正后,能够更准确地反映太原主城区和高速公路沿线小规模建筑群的扩张,有效改善了模式的预报性能,显著提高对近地面气温、地表温度的预报能力。城市下垫面的扩张,使城区夜间升温明显,热岛强度增强。与1992年的城市化状况相比,晴空天气条件下,2012年太原城区夜间气温上升5℃,热岛强度升高2~3℃。城市下垫面扩张,改变了地表能量分配关系,使得地表感热传输明显加强,潜热通量明显减弱,城市冠层作用下的储热能力增强。边界层内部湍流交换、水汽输送等的进一步研究表明：城市地表水汽输送减弱,边界层水汽含量减少,2~4 km高度的水汽含量增加,湍流动能的影响高度增高,湍流混合加剧;14：00,城区边界层高度抬高了800 m,城市上空混合层加深,持续时间更长。     

The contribution of urbanization to recent extreme heat events and a potential mitigation strategy in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei metropolitan area

This paper addresses the contribution of urban land use change to near-surface air temperature during the summer extreme heat events of the early twenty-first century in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei metropolitan area. This study uses the Weather Research Forecasting model with a single urban canopy model and the newest actual urban cover datasets. The results show that urban land use characteristics that have evolved over the past ~20 years in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei metropolitan area have had a significant impact on the extreme temperatures occurring during extreme heat events. Simulations show that new urban development has caused an intensification and expansion of the areas experiencing extreme heat waves with an average increase in temperature of approximately 0.60 °C. This change is most obvious at night with an increase up to 0.95 °C, for which the total contribution of anthropogenic heat is 34 %. We also simulate the effects of geo-engineering strategies increasing the albedo of urban roofs, an effective way of reducing urban heat island, which can reduce the urban mean temperature by approximately 0.51 °C and counter approximately 80 % of the heat wave results from urban sprawl during the last 20 years.     

城市下垫面对河谷城市兰州冬季热岛效应及边界层结构的影响

利用中尺度数值模式WRF耦合单层城市冠层模块UCM,引入2005年MODIS土地利用类型资料,在对2005年1月25—28日兰州市热岛现象进行高分辨率数值模拟的基础上,设计了去除城市下垫面敏感性试验,探讨了城市下垫面对城市边界层的影响程度。结果表明,城市下垫面能使近地层大气温度升高而风速减小,并且,在夜间表现更明显。由城市热岛强度日变化分析可知,城市下垫面对兰州市热岛强度的贡献率为44%。夜间,城市上空200 m以下的近地层大气保持了白天的混合层特征,热岛环流的上升运动促进了山风环流,使得上升气流到达地面以上600 m左右;白天,由于山峰加热效应,城市上空400—600 m存在一个脱地逆温层,城市热岛环流使得11—15时（北京时）市区近地层出现弱上升气流,抑制了谷风环流的形成及发展。城市下垫面的低反照率特性和建筑物的多次反射作用导致城市下垫面的净辐射通量大于非城市下垫面;城市下垫面由于建筑材料的不透水性,导致潜热通量远小于感热通量,而储热项所占比重明显增大。     

Local Winds In A Valley City

Local winds were studied around a valley city, by using a high resolution two-dimensional mesoscale model forced by surface temperatures from a measurement campaign around Lanzhou City, China, during stagnant conditions. In the simulations nighttime winds are purely katabatic downslope winds without urban effects, despite the fact that the city is 6–7°C warmer than its surroundings all night. In contrast, daytime near-surface winds result from upslope flow resisted by an opposing simultaneous urban heat-island circulation (UHIC). Hence winds remain weak and variable around a city in a narrow valley during daytime. These conditions may lead to severe air quality problems day and night.The local circulations are sensitive to the widths of the valley and/or city,and also latitude, as is demonstrated by model experiments. Interestingly, in a flat and calm environment an extratropical daytime UHIC cell may turn into a weak `anti-UHIC' by the morning, due to frictional decoupling after sunset and subsequent inertial oscillation during the night, analogously tothe land breeze and nocturnal low-level jet formation.     

深圳的城市热岛效应

通过全球气候增暖和深圳气象台气温急升等事实，探索因观测环境急剧改变而又缺乏对比观测时，台站所在地城市化后的增温及“热岛效应”等情况。从而得出气候增暖和城市热岛效应场具有较明显的季节性；具有明显的昼夜差别，且晚间远比白天明显。     

Characteristics of Lake Breezes and Their Impacts on Energy and Carbon Fluxes in Mountainous Areas

In mountainous lake areas, lake–land and mountain–valley breezes interact with each other, leading to an "extended lake breeze". These extended lake breezes can regulate and control energy and carbon cycles at different scales. Based on meteorological and turbulent fluxes data from an eddy covariance observation site at Erhai Lake in the Dali Basin,southwest China, characteristics of daytime and nighttime extended lake breezes and their impacts on energy and carbon dioxide exchange in 2015 are investigated. Lake breezes dominate during the daytime while, due to different prevailing circulations at night, there are two types of nighttime breezes. The mountain breeze from the Cangshan Mountain range leads to N1 type nighttime breeze events. When a cyclonic circulation forms and maintains in the southern part of Erhai Lake at night, its northern branch contributes to the formation of N2 type nighttime breeze events. The prevailing wind directions for daytime, N1, and N2 breeze events are southeast, west, and southeast, respectively. Daytime breeze events are more intense than N1 events and weaker than N2 events. During daytime breeze events, the lake breeze decreases the sensible heat flux(Hs) and carbon dioxide flux(F_{CO_2}) and increases the latent heat flux(LE). During N1 breeze events, the mountain breeze decreases Hs and LE and increases F_{CO_2}. For N2 breeze events, the southeast wind from the lake surface increases Hs and LE and decreases suppress carbon dioxide exchange.     

空调系统对城市大气温度影响的模拟研究

人为热排放对城市边界层气候效应的影响起着举足轻重的作用。在人为热源的组成中,建筑物内部的能源消耗、热量产生以及室内外热量传输与交换,对于城市热环境的改变有着非常重要的作用。因此,为研究室内空调系统的产热和通过屋顶、墙面、地面进行室内外热量传输扩散,并对室外热环境产生的影响,运用WRF（Weather Research and Forecasting Model）模式,选取BEP+BEM城市冠层参数化方案,即基于多层城市冠层方案BEP（Building Effect Parameterization）增加室内空调系统影响的建筑物能量模式BEM（Building Energy Model）的方案,以南京2010年8月2—3日,夏季三伏天晴天小风天气作为背景天气进行模拟研究。结果表明,采用WRF模式考虑空调系统室内、外能量交换的BEP+BEM参数化方案,能够更好地模拟出夏季晴天城市近地层气温。当假设空调全天开启时,白天模拟值与观测值吻合较好。夜间温度模拟值高于观测值,在22时—次日00时（北京时）,存在1℃左右的偏差。白天空调系统开启对于城市近地层气温的影响不明显,而夜间使得城市气温普遍升高0.6℃,尤其是在居民区密集的地方,22—23时最大有2℃左右的升温。当调整室内空调目标温度从25℃调至27℃时,空调系统能量总释放量减少12.66%,13—16时温度下降最大,平均约为1℃,建筑物越是密集,温度下降幅度越大。      

盘锦湿地芦苇生态系统长期通量观测研究

针对2004年5月26日-2005年10月15日盘锦湿地芦苇生态系统碳通量、感热通量和潜热通量资料进行分析。结果表明:芦苇湿地具有较强的碳汇作用;2005年芦苇湿地固定二氧化碳为13.32 t/hm2,日平均感热通量和潜热通量分别为2 464 kJ/m2和3 880 kJ/m2。2004年和2005年6～9月的日累积值波文比平均值均为0.15。芦苇湿地碳通量、感热通量和潜热通量的日动态呈单峰单谷型变化,极值出现在中午前后,夜间线形平直。芦苇生长季白天通量绝对值远较夜间大,白天碳吸收,夜间碳排放。CO2浓度年平均日变化曲线亦为单谷单峰型,夜间浓度较高且逐渐升高,直到日出前达到峰值;日出后急剧下降,傍晚又开始逐渐增加。芦苇湿地感热通量昼正夜负,潜热通量与林地不同,全天为正。各通量季节变化明显,冬季CO2通量日变化不明显,趋近于零;感热通量总体向上输送,春季数值较大,生长季数值较小;潜热通量冬季最小,接近0,春季开始显著增加,生长季达到最大。     

北京中心商务区夏季近地面气温时空分布特征

利用2012年6-8月31个自动观测站点气温资料,分析了北京中心商务区（CBD）夏季近地面气温时空分布特征及影响因子,并将CBD地区夏季气温监测数据与朝阳区气象站同期地面气温进行比较分析。结果表明：下垫面类型和人为热排放等差异是直接影响城市中心商务区近地面气温空间分布的主要原因。人口密集区、高层建筑与柏油路面集中区成为夏季月平均气温高值中心,较绿地覆盖区域的低值中心偏高约1.0 ℃;夜间人类活动及车辆使用造成的人为热排放是导致夜间城市地面气温空间差异的主要原因,而白天气温空间差异相对减小。CBD地区与朝阳站平均温差存在较明显的周内和日内变化韵律,且白天和夜间二者温差基本都为正值,但夜间的差值更加明显,即CBD地区平均气温一般高于朝阳站,表现出明显的附加城市热岛效应,而且这种附加城市热岛效应具有同城市热岛强度相近的日内变化规律。进一步分析表明,不同天气条件下CBD区域的附加城市热岛强度表现出显著差异,晴好微风少云天气情况下,附加城市热岛效应更明显,主要表现在夜间;阴天、高湿天气条件下,附加城市热岛效应在白天和夜间均较弱;降水天气条件下附加城市热岛效应日夜差异最小,说明日照和太阳辐射在引起附加城市热岛效应方面起着重要作用。不同天气条件下CBD地区内部的附加城市热岛效应空间分布基本一致。     

Study on Effects of Building Morphology on Urban Boundary Layer Using an Urban Canopy Model

An urban canopy model is incorporated into the Nanjing University Regional Boundary Layer Model. Temperature simulated by the urban canopy model is in better agreement with the observation, especially in the night time, than that simulated by the traditional slab model. The coupled model is used to study the effects of building morphology on urban boundary layer and meteorological environment by changing urban area, building height, and building density.It is found that when the urban area is expanded, the urban boundary layer heat flux, thermal turbulence, and the turbulent momentum flux and kinetic energy all increase or enhance, causing the surface air temperature to rise up. The stability of urban atmospheric stratification is affected to different extent at different times of the day.When the building height goes up, the aerodynamic roughness height, zero plane displacement height of urban area, and ratio of building height to street width all increase. Therefore, the increase in building height results in the decrease of the surface heat flux, urban surface temperature, mean wind speed, and turbulent kinetic energy in daytime. While at night, as more heat storage is released by higher buildings, thermal turbulence is more active and surface heat flux increases, leading to a higher urban temperature.As the building density increases, the aerodynamic roughness height of urban area decreases, and the effect of urban canopy on radiation strengthens. The increase of building density results in the decrease in urban surface heat flux, momentum flux, and air temperature, the increase in mean wind speed, and the weakening of turbulence in the daytime. While at night, the urban temperature increases due to the release of more heat storage.     

上海城市集群化发展显著增强局地高温热浪事件

上海作为中国城市集群化发展的典型代表,经过30余年圈层式、集群化扩张,城市建设用地面积比例高达47.9%,接近50%的生态阈值。城市群快速扩张诱发了一个以徐家汇为中心覆盖周边40 km的区域性热岛,影响高温热浪的时空分布。基于DMSP/OLS遥感夜间灯光数据构建的城市发展指数,客观地反映出1992—2013年上海西郊嘉定、青浦和东郊的浦东集群化发展特征最凸出。利用Chow检验最优分段建模法,研究发现高温热浪期间城市群热岛突变转折与区县城市发展指数超过60%的年份相对应。城市发展指数超过60%后,近郊城市继续扩张将缩小城、郊气象站的温差,诱发更大范围热岛,增强高温热浪。1977—2000年近郊区县城市发展指数低于60%,高温热浪各要素项城郊差值显著上升,而2000年西郊城市发展指数超过60%后,和市中心差值减小,快速城市化明显增强西郊高温热浪强度和持续时间。1978年以来上海西郊与远郊高温日数差值增加了1.6倍,平均气温差值增加了34.4%,平均最高气温差值增加了41.7%。高温热浪期间遥感数据显示,向西郊伸展的城市群地表温度高值区规模扩大了32.8%,是西郊高温热浪增强的驱动因子。     

大理苍山—洱海局地环流的数值模拟

利用耦合了湖泊模型的WRF_CLM模式模拟了秋季大理苍山—洱海地区的局地环流特征。结果表明:模式对近地面温度、风向、风速的模拟与观测基本一致,模拟结果能较好地再现该地区山谷风和湖陆风相互作用的局地环流特征。在秋季,大理苍山的谷风起止时间为08:00~17:00(北京时,下同),湖风起止时间为09:00~19:00。局地环流受高山地形及洱海湖面影响明显,山谷风形成早于湖陆风1 h,夜间山风、陆风强盛于白天谷风、湖风。白天苍山谷风与洱海湖风的叠加作用会驱动谷风到达2600 m的高度,而傍晚最先形成的苍山山风则会减弱洱海的湖风环流。夜间盆地南部在两侧山风、陆风的共同作用下,形成稳定而持续的气旋式环流。日出以后,对流边界层迅速发展,边界层高度逐渐增高。陆地17:00温度达到最高,边界层高度也达到峰值2000 m,之后逐渐降低。日落后形成稳定边界层,边界层高度在夜间基本保持在100 m。相对于陆地,湖面白天边界层高度低300 m,夜间边界层高度高100 m。     

济宁市城市化对气温的影响

利用1981—2010年济宁及周边郊区3县台站的气温资料,研究分析了济宁城区、郊区的气温变化趋势和特点,并探讨了城市化发展对济宁城郊温度的影响。研究发现：（1）近30a来,尽管济宁城区、郊区最高气温、年平均气温、最低气温均呈显著增加趋势,且增温幅度依次增大,但城、郊气温增幅有所差异。其中,年平均气温、最低气温增温幅度郊区高于城区,而最高气温增幅二者相差不大,这表明城市化发展对最低气温的影响最大。此外,一年之中城、郊增暖均表现为：冬季、春季增幅最大,秋季次之,夏季最弱,且城、郊温差逐渐缩小;（2）济宁城市热岛强度总体呈上升趋势,但不同年代、不同季节变化趋势不尽相同。其中,1980年代热岛上升微弱,总体低于平均水平,而1990年代维持在一个较高的水平,2000年以后又明显下降;除秋季外,热岛强度均呈现缓慢上升趋势,其中冬季最强,夏季最弱。城市热岛效应具有明显的季节和日变化特征,表现为：冬半年明显高于夏半年,白天明显低于夜间;（3）济宁市区人口和建成区面积与城市热岛具有很大的相关性,两者的相关系数分别为0．81和0．75。     

Temperature response to future urbanization and climate change

This study examines the impact of future urban expansion on local near-surface temperature for Sydney (Australia) using a future climate scenario (A2). The Weather Research and Forecasting model was used to simulate the present (1990–2009) and future (2040–2059) climates of the region at 2-km spatial resolution. The standard land use of the model was replaced with a more accurate dataset that covers the Sydney area. The future simulation incorporates the projected changes in the urban area of Sydney to account for the expected urban expansion. A comparison between areas with projected land use changes and their surroundings was conducted to evaluate how urbanization and global warming will act together and to ascertain their combined effect on the local climate. The analysis of the temperature changes revealed that future urbanization will strongly affect minimum temperature, whereas little impact was detected for maximum temperature. The minimum temperature changes will be noticeable throughout the year. However, during winter and spring these differences will be particularly large and the increases could be double the increase due to global warming alone at 2050. Results indicated that the changes were mostly due to increased heat capacity of urban structures and reduced evaporation in the city environment.     

On the Contrasting Decadal Changes of Diurnal Surface Temperature Range between the Tibetan Plateau and Southeastern China during the 1980s–2000s

The diurnal surface temperature range(DTR) has become significantly smaller over the Tibetan Plateau(TP) but larger in southeastern China, despite the daily mean surface temperature having increased steadily in both areas during recent decades.Based on ERA-Interim reanalysis data covering 1979–2012, this study shows that the weakened DTR over TP is caused by stronger warming of daily minimum surface temperature(Tmin) and a weak cooling of the daily maximum surface temperature(Tmax); meanwhile, the enhanced DTR over southeastern China is mainly associated with a relatively stronger/weaker warming of Tmax/Tmin. A further quantitative analysis of DTR changes through a process-based decomposition method—the Coupled Surface–Atmosphere Climate Feedback Response Analysis Method(CFRAM)—indicates that changes in radiative processes are mainly responsible for the decreased DTR over the TP. In particular, the increased low-level cloud cover tends to induce the radiative cooling/warming during daytime/nighttime, and the increased water vapor helps to decrease the DTR through the stronger radiative warming during nighttime than daytime. Contributions from the changes in all radiative processes(over-2?C) are compensated for by those from the stronger decreased surface sensible heat flux during daytime than during nighttime(approximately 2.5?C), but are co-contributed by the changes in atmospheric dynamics(approximately-0.4?C) and the stronger increased latent heat flux during daytime(approximately-0.8?C). In contrast, the increased DTR over southeastern China is mainly contributed by the changes in cloud, water vapor and atmospheric dynamics. The changes in surface heat fluxes have resulted in a decrease in DTR over southeastern China.     

上海城市精细化地表温度分布模拟

本文引入了一种模拟城市复杂下垫面地表温度的方法,该方法基于地表辐射参数化方案（NARP）计算城市净辐射通量,然后利用客观滞后模型OHM计算地表储热通量,再利用强迫恢复法计算表面温度。通过上海地区高分辨率卫星资料获取不同地表类型覆盖比例,以每个格点中各地表覆盖类型所占面积比例为权重计算格点的平均地表温度,并对2013年8月12日上海地区地表温度进行模拟。结果表明：上海城市下垫面与其他类型下垫面相比,地表温度白天升高较快,而夜间下降较慢。模拟结果与MODIS陆面温度及地面观测资料进行比较,模拟的上海地表温度分布结构更精细,与气象站观测值较接近。     

城市化对北京单次极端高温过程影响的数值模拟研究

城市化对高温热浪的频次和强度具有重要影响,但目前对于城市化影响高温热浪过程的机理了解还不充分。本文利用WRF模式,对2010年7月2～6日（北京时）北京一次高温过程进行了模拟,分析了城市化对此次高温过程的影响机理。采用优化后的WRF模式,能够模拟出北京连续5日高温的特征和城市热岛强度的变化。城市下垫面的不透水性决定了城区2 m高度处相对湿度低于乡村,削弱了城区通过潜热调节城市气温的能力。日落后,城市感热通量下降缓慢,城区降温速率小于乡村,夜间边界层稳定、高度低,风速小,抑制了城乡之间能量的传输,形成了夜间强的城市热岛强度,造成夜间城市气温明显高于乡村。日出后城乡地面感热通量、潜热通量迅速上升,边界层稳定性下降。午后,城市下垫面分别为地表感热通量和潜热通量的高、低值中心,通过潜热调节气温的能力被削弱;边界层稳定性降低,有利于能量的垂直扩散;此时,城市热岛强度小于夜间。因此,北京城市下垫面形成了明显的城市热岛效应,加重了城区极端高温事件的强度。此外,在这次高温热浪期间,中国东部大部分地区受到大陆暖高压控制,晴空少云,西北气流越山后形成焚风效应,是北京地区高温热浪形成的天气背景。