未来情景下南水北调中线工程水源区极端降水分布特征

利用南水北调中线工程水源区9个气象站点1961-2008年的日降水资料和IPCC第四次评估报告多模式数据结果,抽取逐年的最大日降水量序列样本,运用广义极值分布（GEV）和广义帕累托分布 (GPD）两种极值统计模型对样本进行拟合,遴选出描述流域最大日降水量分布规律的最优概率模型,推算重现期对应的降水量值,并预估该流域极端降水事件在未来气候变化情景下的响应。研究表明：南水北调中线工程水源区降水极值均符合GEV和GPD分布,但GPD模型更适合用于描述该流域降水极值分布;未来气候变化情景下用GPD分布拟合的降水极值优于使用GEV分布;A2情景下极端降水事件的发生将更频繁、更强烈,A1B情景下次之,B1情景下相对较小,表明未来高排放气候情景对极端降水事件的影响比中、低排放情景大。     

中国区域气候极值重现水平的非平稳模型及趋势分析

应用基于GEV(Generalized Extreme Value)分布的平稳/非平稳极值概率模型,拟合中国区域489站自建站至2013年极端最高、最低温度和日最大降水量的年极值序列,并导出极值的重现水平及其变率随重现期和时间变化的一般表达式。着重分析了气候极值的"常态"(重现期为2年)与"极端态"(重现期为50年)的变化趋势及其线性变率的空间格局。详细探讨了极值的常态与极端态变化趋势相反的原因以及可能的影响。结果表明,极端最高温度在东部季风区普遍适用平稳模型;在其他地区更适用非平稳模型,其常态和极端态都以增温为主。极端最低温度在全国范围内普遍适用非平稳模型,其常态和极端态也都以增温为主,但在东北局部地区极端态呈现与常态相反的降温趋势。日最大降水量则在全国范围内普遍适用平稳模型。当GEV分布的尺度参数随时间变化时,与极值的常态相比,极端态的变率范围要大得多,并可能导致两者的变率异号的情形;尤其是当气候极值的常态日趋平缓而极端态却日益极端时,可能导致更为剧烈的灾害性天气。     

气候变化对水文季节性迁移的影响：以水库汛期分期和极值降水为例

气候变化影响下水利工程的可靠设计和安全运行是广大决策者、研究者和公众共同关注的热点问题。以清江流域为研究对象,首先采用模糊集合分析法对不同温室气体排放情景(A2、A1B和B1)下的逐日降水资料进行汛期分期,再通过广义极值分布(GEV)函数对各分期的极值降水序列进行频率分析。结果表明,降水季节性迁移直接影响汛期分期;3种排放情景下未来各时段(2011—2030年、2046—2065年和2080—2099年)的主汛期较基准期均推迟且有缩短趋势。对于极值降水量级,未来情景下明显小于基准期,且这种差距随着重现期的增大而增大;主汛期明显大于前汛期和后汛期,且在时段之间的差异明显大于排放情景之间的差异。     

基于SWAT模型模拟的未来气候变化对洪湖流域水资源影响研究

利用SWAT模型和IPCC第五次评估报告中全球气候模式BCC-CSM 1.1数据,对未来气候变化RCP 2.6、RCP 4.5、RCP 8.5共3种典型排放情景对洪湖流域水资源的影响进行了模拟研究。结果表明:SWAT模型对洪湖流域供水资源模拟的适用性较好,洪湖流域在未来RCP 2.6、RCP 4.5、RCP 8.5排放情景下的温度增幅分别为1.4℃、1.9℃和2.4℃,降水变率分别为-3.20%、7.60%和7.90%。SWAT模型模拟结果表明,未来3种情景下随着温度上升洪湖流域实际蒸散发量均略增加,径流受降水影响显著且变化不同,RCP 4.5和RCP 8.5情景下地表径流及地下径流均增加,RCP 8.5情景比RCP4.5情景下地表径流增加多;且各种重现期的洪峰流量和洪水发生频次均增加,RCP 2.6情景下地表径流和地下径流减少。3种情景下径流变异系数较基准期均略增大,说明洪湖流域发生干旱和洪涝的可能性增大,水资源可控性和利用率降低。     

气侯变化背景下黑河上游春季融雪洪水预估研究

气候变暖将导致高山区冰冻圈加剧融化,一方面融水资源时空分布的不确定性增大;另一方面,融水洪水灾害发生的频度和强度也将发生改变。基于气象、水文数据和MODIS积雪覆盖数据,利用融雪径流模型(SRM),对1990—2012年共23年祁连山黑河札马什克控制区融雪期径流进行模拟与验证。结果表明：SRM在该流域具有较高的模拟精度（纳什系数为0.91),可用于分析和预估控制区径流强度变化。为此,采用黑河流域气温、降水降尺度数据,预估了未来气候变化背景下积雪范围变化及不同重现期洪水变化趋势。结果显示,与基准期相比,在RCP2.6、RCP4.5和RCP8.5情景下,最大积雪范围可减小3%~7%,且随着海拔升高,变化愈剧烈。RCP2.6情景下因气温和降水变化幅度较小,到21世纪末各重现期洪水强度保持在10%以内波动;RCP4.5情景下,各重现期洪水强度最高增大约20%;在RCP8.5情景下,各重现期洪水强度最高可增大超30%。相关分析结果显示,不同重现期洪水径流与气温和降水均具有较强相关性：重现期越长,洪峰与气温的相关性越大;重现期越短,洪峰与降水的相关性越大。通过预估气候变化背景下的融雪性洪水事件强度及重现期变化,有助于有效开展区域洪水风险管理、提高洪水资源的利用价值。     

气侯变化对东部季风区赣江和官厅流域径流的影响

选取中国东部季风区南方赣江流域和北方官厅流域,基于逐日气象和水文观测数据率定和验证了HBV水文模型,并以国际耦合模式比较计划第五阶段（CMIP5）中输出要素最多的5个全球气候模式在3种典型浓度路径（RCP2.6、RCP4.5和RCP8.5）下的预估结果驱动HBV模型,预估了气候变化对21世纪两个流域径流的影响。结果表明：(1) 1961—2017年,赣江和官厅流域年平均气温均呈显著上升趋势,升温速率分别为0.17℃/(10 a)和0.28℃/(10 a);同期,赣江流域降水显著增加,官厅流域降水微弱下降。不同RCP情景下,21世纪两个流域均将持续变暖、降水有所增加,北方官厅流域的气温和降水增幅均大于南方赣江流域。(2) 21世纪,官厅流域年、季径流增幅远大于赣江流域。官厅流域年径流在近期（2020—2039年）、中期（2050—2069年）、末期（2080—2099年）均呈增加趋势,RCP8.5情景下增幅最大、RCP4.5最小。赣江流域在RCP4.5下,近期、中期年径流相对基准期略有减少,但在整个21世纪径流呈上升趋势;RCP2.6和RCP8.5下,21世纪中期以后径流增幅下降。(3) 21世纪,东部季风区北部的官厅流域发生洪涝、南方赣江流域发生干旱的可能性增大,不同RCP情景预估得到相同的结论。     

气候变化对淮河蒙洼蓄滞洪区启用风险影响评估

基于RCP情景下47个IPCC CMIP5气候模式模拟数据和大尺度水文模型VIC,预估了未来（2021-2050年）气候变化对淮河蒙洼蓄滞洪区启用的可能影响。结果表明：与基准期（1971-2000年）相比,多模式预估淮河上游未来多年平均气温一致呈增加趋势,平均增幅范围0.2～1.7℃。不同模式对降水预估差异较大,但有超过70%的模式预估降水呈增加趋势,平均增幅为3.4%～4.1%。未来气候情景下,王家坝断面洪水总体呈增加趋势,20年一遇的洪水强度平均增幅19%,洪水频率将增大,蒙洼蓄滞洪区启用可能更加频繁,启用的风险加大。     

气候变化背景下蚌埠市暴雨与淮河上游洪水遭遇概率分析

利用6个全球/区域气候模式和VIC模型,预估了IPCC RCPs情景下2021—2050年淮河干流蚌埠水文站(吴家渡断面)的日流量过程。在此基础上,运用Copula函数构建了蚌埠市暴雨与淮河上游洪水遭遇概率模型,分析了RCP2.6、RCP4.5和RCP8.5情景下不同重现期暴雨和洪水组合遭遇概率的变化趋势。结果表明,2021—2050年多模式预估上游洪水与城市暴雨遭遇的概率较基准期(1971—2000年)有所增大,具有较高的一致性,平均增幅46%~79%。暴雨与洪水遭遇概率的增大,将会增加未来蚌埠市防洪工作的难度。     

未来RCPs情景下珠江流域降水特征的模拟分析

利用全球模式（BCC_CSM1.1）驱动区域模式RegCM4,模拟分析了RCP8.5和RCP4.5排放情景下未来2010—2099年珠江流域降水基本特征、强度分布和极端降水事件的变化特征。研究表明,RegCM4区域气候模式可刻画出珠江流域极端降水的特征。RCP4.5和RCP8.5排放情景下降水变化特征一致,未来不同时段（2020s、2050s和2080s）珠江流域的年平均降水量减少,春季和冬季减少,夏季和秋季增加,而且年平均和四季的降水频率均减少,强度增加（春季除外）。降水基本特征的变化导致降水强度分布改变,春季除外,不同时段的年和四季的降水极值（降水90th和95th分位值）的年平均值均增加,增幅最大为秋季,表明未来时段极端降水强度增加。未来不同时段珠江流域的年最大日降水量的5年重现期值在柳江流域、红水河、桂江流域和珠江三角洲（珠三角）地区增加,增幅30%~45%。RCP8.5排放情景下,未来2080s时段珠三角地区的年最大日降水量5年重现期值相当于现在时段8~10年的重现值,50年值相当于现在时段100年的重现期值,表明未来这些地区的极端降水事件发生频率增加。      

白洋淀流域未来日最高最低气温变化的统计降尺度分析

大气环流模型（GCMs）预测的气候变化情景空间分辨率低,不能满足气候变化对水资源影响进行评估的需要.利用统计降尺度模型可以解决GCMs预测的气候变化情景空间分辨率低的缺陷.在白洋淀流域应用统计降尺度模型（SDSM）,选取日平均气温作为预报量,根据NCEP再分析数据与站点实测数据序列的相关关系选择合适的预报因子,建立大气环流因子与各站点日最高气温和最低气温之间的统计关系.将数据序列分为1961-1975年和1976-1990年两个时段,对SDSM进行率定和验证.最后将HadCM3输出的未来情景降尺度到站点尺度,模拟白洋淀流域未来时期三个时段2020s（2010-2039年）、2050s（2040-2069年）和2080s（2070-2099年）的日最高气温和最低气温时间序列.结果表明：SDSM在白洋淀流域的模拟效果较好.白洋淀流域日最高气温和最低气温在A2和B2两种情景下均呈现上升趋势,且A2情景下的增幅高于B2情景,山区的增幅高于平原,日最高气温的增幅大于日最低气温.     

Projected hydroclimate changes over Andean basins in central Chile from downscaled CMIP5 models under the low and high emission scenarios

This study examines the projections of hydroclimatic regimes and extremes over Andean basins in central Chile (～ 30–40° S) under a low and high emission scenarios (RCP2.6 and RCP8.5, respectively). A gridded daily precipitation and temperature dataset based on observations is used to drive and validate the VIC macro-scale hydrological model in the region of interest. Historical and future simulations from 19 climate models participating in CMIP5 have been adjusted with the observational dataset and then used to make hydrological projections. By the end of the century, there is a large difference between the scenarios, with projected warming of ～ + 1.2 °C (RCP2.6), ～ +?3.5 °C (RCP8.5) and drying of ～ ? 3% (RCP2.6), ～ ? 30% (RCP8.5). Following the strong drying and warming projected in this region under the RCP8.5 scenario, the VIC model simulates decreases in annual runoff of about 40% by the end of the century. Such strong regional effect of climate change may have large implications for the water resources of this region. Even under the low emission scenario, the Andes snowpack is projected to decrease by 35–45% by mid-century. In more snowmelt-dominated areas, the projected hydrological changes under RCP8.5 go together with more loss in the snowpack (75–85%) and a temporal shift in the center timing of runoff to earlier dates (up to 5 weeks by the end of the century). The severity and frequency of extreme hydroclimatic events are also projected to increase in the future. The occurrence of extended droughts, such as the recently experienced mega-drought (2010–2015), increases from one to up to five events per 100 years under RCP8.5. Concurrently, probability density function of 3-day peak runoff indicates an increase in the frequency of flood events. The estimated return periods of 3-day peak runoff events depict more drastic changes and increase in the flood risk as higher recurrence intervals are considered by mid-century under RCP2.6 and RCP8.5, and by the end of the century under RCP8.5.     

FUTURE CHANGE OF PRECIPITATION EXTREMES OVER THE PEARL RIVER BASIN FROM REGIONAL CLIMATE MODELS

Based on RegCM4, a climate model system, we simulated the distribution of the present climate (1961-1990) and the future climate (2010-2099), under emission scenarios of RCPs over the whole Pearl River Basin. From the climate parameters, a set of mean precipitation, wet day frequency, and mean wet day intensity and several precipitation percentiles are used to assess the expected changes in daily precipitation characteristics for the 21st century. Meanwhile the return values of precipitation intensity with an average return of 5, 10, 20, and 50 years are also used to assess the expected changes in precipitation extremes events in this study. The structure of the change across the precipitation distribution is very coherent between RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. The annual, spring and winter average precipitation decreases while the summer and autumn average precipitation increases. The basic diagnostics of precipitation show that the frequency of precipitation is projected to decrease but the intensity is projected to increase. The wet day percentiles (q90 and q95) also increase, indicating that precipitation extremes intensity will increase in the future. Meanwhile, the 5-year return value tends to increase by 30%-45% in the basins of Liujiang River, Red Water River, Guihe River and Pearl River Delta region, where the 5-year return value of future climate corresponds to the 8- to 10-year return value of the present climate, and the 50-year return value corresponds to the 100-year return value of the present climate over the Pearl River Delta region in the 2080s under RCP8.5, which indicates that the warming environment will give rise to changes in the intensity and frequency of extreme precipitation events.     

Projected Changes in Temperature and Precipitation Extremes over China as Measured by 50-yr Return Values and Periods Based on a CMIP5 Ensemble

Future changes in the 50-yr return level for temperature and precipitation extremes over mainland China are investigated based on a CMIP5 multi-model ensemble for RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios. The following indices are analyzed:TXx and TNn(the annual maximum and minimum of daily maximum and minimum surface temperature), RX5 day(the annual maximum consecutive 5-day precipitation) and CDD(maximum annual number of consecutive dry days). After first validating the model performance, future changes in the 50-yr return values and return periods for these indices are investigated along with the inter-model spread. Multi-model median changes show an increase in the 50-yr return values of TXx and a decrease for TNn, more specifically, by the end of the 21 st century under RCP8.5, the present day 50-yr return period of warm events is reduced to 1.2 yr, while extreme cold events over the country are projected to essentially disappear.A general increase in RX5 day 50-yr return values is found in the future. By the end of the 21 st century under RCP8.5, events of the present RX5 day 50-yr return period are projected to reduce to 10 yr over most of China. Changes in CDD-50 show a dipole pattern over China, with a decrease in the values and longer return periods in the north, and vice versa in the south. Our study also highlights the need for further improvements in the representation of extreme events in climate models to assess the future risks and engineering design related to large-scale infrastructure in China.     

西南地区持续性气候事件的未来变化预估

利用RegCM4.0区域气候模式单向嵌套BCC_CSM1.1模式输出资料进行连续积分获得的模拟预估数据,对西南地区未来2025-2055年在两种温室气体排放情景下持续性干期和持续湿期事件的特征及其相对于历史基准期的变化进行了预估分析。结果表明,最长持续干期和湿期在RCP4.5和RCP8.5两种情景下的变化趋势不一致,RCP8.5情景下的最长湿期和持续湿期事件的发生频次相较RCP4.5并没有大幅增加,而是比RCP4.5情景具有更高的年际变率特征。相对于历史基准期,两种情景下的最长持续性气候事件的日数和发生频次在西南地区的东南部区域显著性增加,而在川西高原地区显著减少。对于持续干期发生的频次FCDD和最长持续湿期而言,四川中部以及四川、云南和贵州三省邻接处在RCP4.5情景下表现为显著增加的区域在RCP8.5情景下转变为显著减少。未来几十年西南地区持续性湿期和干期的分布特征可能更加趋于不均匀。     

基于动态重现期的极端高温气候评估方法研究

利用全国754站逐日最高气温观测序列,在论证极端温度概率分布与非平稳性关系的基础上,构建和比较了多种非平稳广义极值模型,定义了极端高温的动态重现期和重现水平,提出了一种极端高温事件的新型评估思想和方法,并将其应用于极端气候变化研究。通过该方法可以更好地解释极端事件的真实极端性,有效地增强极端事件之间的可比性,从而保留更多历史极端气候事件的信息。动态重现期的变换运用可对当前极端事件发生的真实状态和趋势提出更准确评估。该方法的提出可有效澄清学术领域和公共舆论对于多年一遇极端事件的理解上长期混淆重现期的绝对值和概率性这一分歧和谬误。     

Climate change in the Paraná state,Brazil: responses to increasing atmospheric CO 2 in reference evapotranspiration

The hydrological variable evapotranspiration (ET) is challenging to estimate because it cannot be measured directly in natural environments (except in small plots). The uncertainties associated with the models used for its prediction have increased under climate change conditions. We studied the influence of stomatal resistance on ET estimates using the Penman-Monteith method as projected by three general circulation models in two emission scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) for future climates throughout the twenty-first century (2010–2039, 2040–2069, and 2070–2099). We also investigated the probable ET rate changes in relation to the current (30 years average, 1980–2009) climate conditions for the Paraná state in the southern region of Brazil. The results were regionalized to help policymakers assess climate change impacts and design adaptation measures. ET increases of up to 15% were found in future climate conditions, which may lead to a significant increase in the water demand for agricultural crops. However, we believe that plant morphophysiological changes may occur under atmospheric CO2 enrichment conditions and that a possible reduction in stomatal conductance will result in lower ET increases than those obtained with the traditional Penman-Monteith method. When considering future climate scenarios, we propose the equation be adjusted to consider stomatal resistance as a function of CO2 concentrations.     

气候变化对河北坝上地区草地土壤风蚀扬尘季节和年排放速率的影响

以全球气候模式NorESM1-M产生的RCP2.6、RCP4.5、RCP6.0、RCP8.5气候变化情景数据和原环保部推荐的土壤风蚀扬尘计算方法,模拟分析了未来气候变化对河北坝上砂粘壤土、粘壤土、壤粘土、砂壤土、砂粘土和风沙土草地土壤风蚀扬尘总可悬浮颗粒物(Total Suspended Particle,TSP)、PM10和PM2.5的季节及年排放速率的影响。结果表明:气候变化影响下坝上地区气温上升,年降水量和风速波动较大、并存在上升和下降的趋势。相比基准情景,在RCP2.6、RCP4.5、RCP6.0和RCP8.5情景下,各土壤风蚀扬尘TSP、PM10和PM2.5季节排放速率在春季分别高15%、47%、28%和46%;秋季分别高17%、54%、45%和38%;冬季分别低36%、42%、39%和44%;夏季,在RCP2.6情景下低1%,在RCP4.5、RCP6.0和RCP8.5情景下分别高14%、3%和7%;未来气候变化情景下,各土壤风蚀扬尘TSP、PM10和PM2.5年排放速率分别高25%、54%、35%和54%。基准和未来气候变化情景下,土壤风蚀扬尘TSP、PM10和PM2.5的季节和年排放速率及其差异从高到低均依次为砂粘壤土、风沙土、砂壤土、粘壤土、壤粘土和砂粘土。表明未来气候变化将使河北坝上地区草地土壤风蚀扬尘排放速率增加,但存在季节和气候变化情景方面的差异。     

Simulation of extreme precipitation over the Yangtze River Basin using Wakeby distribution

Based on the daily observational precipitation data at 147 stations in the Yangtze River Basin during 1960–2005 and projected daily data of 79 grid cells from the ECHAM5/ MPI-OM model in the 20th and 21st century, time series of precipitation extremes which contain AM (Annual Maximum) and MI (Munger Index) are constructed. The distribution feature of precipitation extremes is analyzed based on the two index series. Three principal results were obtained, as stated in the sequel. (i) In the past half century, the intensity of extreme heavy precipitation and drought events was higher in the mid-lower Yangtze than in the upper Yangtze reaches. Although the ECHAM5 model still can’t capture the precipitation extremes over the Yangtze River Basin satisfactorily, spatial pattern of the observed and the simulated precipitation extremes are much similar to each other. (ii) For quantifying the characteristics of extremely high and extremely low precipitation over the Yangtze River Basin, four probability distributions are used, namely: General Extreme Value (GEV), General Pareto (GPA), General Logistic (GLO), and Wakeby (WAK). It was found that WAK can adequately describe the probability distribution of precipitation extremes calculated from both observational and projected data. (iii) Return period of precipitation extremes show spatially different changes under three greenhouse gas emission scenarios. The 50-year heavy precipitation and drought events from simulated data during 1951–2000 will become more frequent, with return period below 25 years, for the most mid-lower Yangtze region in 2001–2050. The changing character of return periods of precipitation extremes should be taken into account for the hydrological design and future water resources management.     

National-scale analysis of low flow frequency: historical trends and potential future changes

The potential impact of climate change on hydrological extremes is of increasing concern across the globe. Here, a national-scale grid-based hydrological model is used to investigate historical trends and potential future changes in low flow frequency across Great Britain. The historical analyses use both observational data (1891–2015) and ensemble data from a regional climate model (1900–2006). The results show relatively few significant trends in historical low flows (2- or 20-year return period), whether based on 7- or 30-day annual minima. Significant negative trends seen in some limited parts of the country when using observational data are generally not seen when using climate model data. The future analyses use climate model ensemble data for both near future and far future time periods (2020–2049 and 2070–2099 respectively), which are compared to a baseline sub-period from the historical ensemble (1975–2004). The results show future reductions in low flows, which are generally larger in the south of the country, at the higher (20-year) return period, and for the later time period. Reductions are more limited if the estimates of future potential evaporation include the effect of increased carbon dioxide concentrations on stomatal resistance. Such reductions in river flow could have significant impacts on the aquatic environment and on agriculture, and present a challenge for water managers, especially as reductions in water supply are likely to occur alongside increases in demand.