中国重庆荣昌气田3km深度注水诱发地震研究

自1988年7月起,有关部门在位于中国西南部的重庆荣昌天然气田以2．1～2．9MPa的泵送压力间歇性地向2．6～2．9kin的深度注入了超过100万立方米的采气废水。截止到2006年底,这项注水工作已诱发了超过32000次地表记录到的地震,包括2次ML≥5．0的地震,14次ML≥4．0的地震,及超过100次ML≥3．0的地震。我们对该地震序列的传染型余震序列（简称ETAS）模型及地震活动的一些统计参数的时间演化进行了统计分析。传染型余震序列模型中的随机成分可被视为流体驱动的地震活动的指标,而大森定律型余震的发生率则表示了地震本身的应力触发。我们观测到注水以来地震的活动可划分为3个不同阶段,与注水的不同时期相对应。第一阶段对应于低速率（长时间间隔）的注水初期,绝大多数地震为大森型地震,只有8％是因外部因素（即注水）所致。第二阶段对应于高速率注水时期,具有地震活动度高,而且有相当比例（45％）的地震活动与流体作用有关的特点。第三阶段注水速率的降低直接导致地震活动下降;有超过70％的地震为随机发生,表明了外部触发起主导作用。荣昌诱发地震序列的物理机制是伴随深井注水的孔隙压力扩散作用和先前地震本身引起的库仑破裂应力变化联合作用的结果。深井注水引起的2．1～2．9MPa的孔隙压力增加,足以引起当地地层破裂而发生地震。     

两种短期概率预测模型在2017年九寨沟7.0级地震中的应用和比较研究

本文选用"传染型余震序列"（ETAS）模型和Reasenberg-Jones（R-J）模型，分别对九寨沟M_S7.0地震序列的模型参数稳定性、余震发生率预测和余震概率预测进行了比较研究，并利用"地震信息增益"（IGPE）、N-test和T-test检验方法对预测效果进行了评价.研究结果表明，ETAS模型和R-J模型的序列参数分别在震后t₂=2.0天和t₂=1.50天后趋于稳定，此次九寨沟M_S7.0地震序列的衰减较为正常；对未来1天的余震发生率预测和余震概率连续滑动预测表明，ETAS模型给出的余震发生率和余震概率数值均低于R-J模型预测结果；IGPE结果显示，ETAS模型在95%的置信区间上预测效果明显优于R-J模型；统计检验结果表明，在序列参数较不稳定的震后早期阶段，ETAS模型预测失效而R-J模型预测效果较好，在序列参数稳定阶段，ETAS模型预测效果较好而R-J模型预测失效.根据上述分析，在与此次九寨沟M_S7.0地震类型相同的地震的余震预测策略上，如可在序列参数不稳定的震后早期阶段使用R-J模型、在此后使用ETAS模型，或可取得较好的预测效果.     

序列衰减与余震激发研究进展及应用成果

着重于序列衰减与余震激发,系统介绍了修改的大森公式、ETAS模型及BASS模型的最新理论研究进展及应用成果。修改的大森公式是迄今为止对序列衰减的最好描述,据此可对序列衰减特征进行定量表述。大森公式本质上是一种典型的现象统计模型,但由于其参数少、计算简单,并且确实能够反映序列衰减的总体特征,因而在实际中应用广泛。ETAS模型考虑了具有统计自相似特征的次级余震激发问题,次级余震激发强度与父地震强度有关,这在物理过程方面对大森公式进行了大大的拓展。由于考虑了次级余震的激发问题,ETAS模型不但在余震序列研究方面比修改的大森公式有了明显的进展,而且在诸如平静检测、余震群集剔除、背景地震活动评估、外因触发地震活动检测等方面也有诸多应用。BASS模型遵循修改的Bath定律,而ETAS模型遵循的是与父地震震级有关的相似率,这是BASS模型与ETAS模型的最大区别,因而相对ETAS模型而言,BASS模型是一种完全自相似的理想化模型,但目前基于BASS模型的应用研究尚不多见     

余震的序列参数稳定性和余震短期发生率预测效能的连续评估——以2014年云南鲁甸6.5级地震为例

为考察目前国际上广泛使用、对真实地震序列描述最好的"传染型余震序列模型"(ETAS)在主震后的序列参数拟合、余震短期发生率预测的效能,本研究以2014年云南鲁甸MS6.5地震序列为例,采用滑动连续拟合与预测的方式,考察了ETAS模型参数的动态变化和余震短期发生率预测的实际效能.连续滑动拟合结果表明,在主震发生后的早期阶段,α值有明显的不稳定变化,在震后5.10天稳定在1.6~2.0;p值在震后25.00天内由1.07逐渐下降至0.78左右,其后稳定在0.72~0.85;b值在震后35.00天内逐渐由0.80增加至0.95,其后稳定在0.93~0.97.对连续滑动预测结果的N-test检验表明,余震发生率预测会出现部分失效现象,1天预测时间窗失效比例约为12%、3天预测时间窗失效比例为6%.建议可在震后早期采用1天的较短预测时间窗,而在序列参数较为稳定时段采用较长的3天预测时间窗.     

基于ETAS模型对三峡库区流体触发微震活动的定量检测

针对ETAS模型参数估计方法(MLE)中的初值敏感性问题,提出GA+MLE算法,以GA结果作为MLE算法的初始输入,对结果进行精细计算.通过ETAS模型研究三峡库区微震活动在快速加载及缓慢卸载两种状态下的流体触发、地震自激发及微震活动衰减特征,讨论库水渗透及加卸载过程的可能影响.结果显示:(1)库水快速加载阶段ETAS模型参数μ、α、p及流体触发地震所占比例R_b均显示由小变大、又由大变小的变化过程,但p值的统计差异不显著;在库水缓慢卸载阶段,μ与R_b持续减小;(2)平均来看,库水快速加载阶段流体对微震活动显示较强的外因触发作用,同一条件下序列地震自激发明显增强、衰减相对较慢;水位缓慢卸载阶段,流体对地震活动的触发影响相对较弱,地震自激发不强、衰减相对较快;(3)分阶段来看,蓄水初期库水作用对微震活动的外因触发影响较弱,随库水位的升高及作用时间的增长,流体渗透逐渐发挥作用,孔隙压逐渐增大,流体外因触发作用明显增强,大多数微震活动缘于流体的直接触发(R_b≥95%);足够长的时间之后,由于地下数公里范围在新的载荷及渗透条件下趋于新的平衡,流体渗透影响趋于稳定,孔隙压趋于常数,孔隙压变化趋于0,流体对微震活动的触发作用逐渐减弱.     

地震序列早期参数估计和余震概率预测中截止震级Mc的影响：以2013年甘肃岷县—漳县6.6级地震为例

针对“时空传染型余震序列”（英文简称ETAS）模型在地震序列参数的早期特征和余震短期概率预测研究中的应用问题,重点考察了不同截止震级M_c选取对结果的影响.以甘肃岷县—漳县6.6级地震序列的震后1.677天内的早期阶段为例,考察了ETAS模型和修正的Omori-Utsu公式的适用性问题,发现ETAS模型AIC值在各截止震级M_c下均小于修正的Omori-Utsu公式的结果,表明其适用效果更好.设定M_c=M_L1.0,1.1,…,2.5,分别考察了ETAS模型中α值和p值的稳定性,并与2013年芦山7.0级地震序列进行了对比.结果表明,M_c对α值的影响相对较小,p值影响较大.此外,对基于ETAS模型和“瘦化算法”的余震短期概率预测结果进行了N-test检验,结果表明M_c的设定对余震短期概率预测影响较大,对甘肃岷县—漳县6.6级地震,仅当M_c=M_L1.0或M_L1.1时可获得较好的预测结果.由此,在真正的“向前”的预测实践中,需要首先考察不同的M_c下的余震预测效果.     

基于时-空ETAS模型的新疆伽师地区背景及触发地震活动的探讨

新疆伽师地区历史上发生过多次M_S6.0以上地震,2020年1月19日该地区再次发生了M_S6.5地震。这些地震属于独立的背景地震活动,还是与已发生的其他地震存在一定的相互触发关系?探索与此问题相关的背景地震活动和触发地震活动特征,对深化这一区域地震活动特征的认识具有重要意义。为此,文中利用时-空ETAS模型对该区1970年1月1日以来的地震序列进行分析,拟合得到了较为稳定可靠的模型参数,给出了区域背景地震活动水平、表示地震活动丛集特征的丛集率指标及包含背景及丛集活动的总活动水平等结果,并利用随机除丛方法将背景地震活动与丛集活动剥离开来,得到了每个地震事件作为背景事件或触发余震事件的概率。结果显示,研究区北部与南部的背景地震活动和触发丛集活动存在明显差异,丛集地震活动为总体地震活动的主要成分;计算结果表明,此次M_S6.5地震被触发的可能性达99%,其中2020年1月18日M_S5.3地震对其触发贡献最大,达94%;在对其他地震事件具有触发贡献的个体中,2020年4月21日ML4.1地震"干预"其他事件发生过程的平均能力相对较高,达0.505,但需要通过其他手段进一步佐证。文中工作是中国地震局开展的针对此次地震的虚拟科考工作的一部分,所得结果可以为后续深入研究该地震提供帮助。     

基于ETAS模型对青海地区余震预测效能评估的研究

为系统评估青海地区余震短期发生率的预测效能,以及构建适合地震活动特点的余震早期预测策略和预测指标体系,利用国际上当前较为前沿的时间序列ETAS模型和"瘦化算法"对青海地区2009年以来的8个地震的早期余震序列参数进行拟合,并利用N-test检验方法对预测结果进行回溯性的效能评估。研究表明:ETAS模型和"瘦化算法"对青海地区的余震发生率具有很好的预测能力,建议采用3天的预测时间窗,且对序列早期阶段进行应用,或可取得"最佳"的预测效果。     

2019年6月17日四川长宁MS6.0地震早期序列参数分析及强余震概率预测

2019年6月17日四川长宁发生M_S6.0地震, 之后发生了一系列的强余震, 为更好地分析此次地震的序列特征以及强余震的可预测属性, 采用国际上对复杂序列拟合相对较好的“传染型余震序列”(ETAS)模型以及基于Reseanberg-Jones(R-J)模型发展的Omi-R-J模型, 通过连续滑动、 拟合和余震发生率预测, 对地震序列的模型参数稳定性、 预测结果进行了比较研究, 并利用N-test、 T-test检验方法对预测结果进行了效能评估。 结果表明, 相比于其他中强震序列参数, 此次长宁M_S6.0地震序列参数中反映激发能力的αETAS较其他序列明显偏小, 而反映衰减能力的pORJ值和应力累积水平的bORJ值相对较小, 与此次余震序列丰富、 持续时间相对较长相吻合; ETAS和Omi-R-J模型对于复杂序列在[3.0, 3.5, 4.0]三个震级档的强余震仍具有一定的预测能力; 总体的“每个地震的信息增益”(IGPE)计算结果显示, ETAS模型略优于Omi-R-J模型, 前者或更适合复杂地震序列的余震预测。     

山东乳山震群遗漏地震检测及震源区活动特征分析

对震群活动特征的深入研究可以为区域地震危险性分析和地震活动趋势判断提供有效的依据,但受台网布局和震群位置的影响,地震目录中往往会遗漏一些地震,而地震目录的完整性将会影响震群活动特征分析的可靠性。因此,本文利用基于GPU加速的模板匹配方法对山东乳山震群2014年5月至2015年6月期间固定台站和流动台阵记录的连续波形进行扫描,检测出7500个地震事件,为台网目录的4倍,使完备震级从1.0级降至0.2级。基于完备地震目录,利用传染型余震序列(ETAS)模型分析了乳山震群的活动特征。ETAS模型中的随机成分可以作为外力作用触发地震的指标。研究结果表明,乳山震群外力触发的地震所占比例较大,结合前人研究结果,初步推测流体作用可能是外力因素之一,其在乳山震群的发展过程中起一定的作用,但不同时期外力作用对微震活动的触发强度不同。     

Changes in sediment transport in the Kuye River in the Loess Plateau in China

In this paper, the changes in sediment transport over 51 years from 1955 to 2006 in the Kuye River in the Loess Plateau in China are assessed. Key factors affecting sediment yield and sediment transport, such as precipitation depth, discharge, and human activities are studied. To investigate the changes in sediment yield in this watershed, a trend analysis on sediment concentration, precipitation depth, and discharge is conducted. Precipitation depths at 2 Climate Stations （CSs）, as well as discharge and sediment transport at 3 Gauging Stations （GSs） are used to assess the features of sediment transport in the Kuye River. The rtmoff modulus （defined as the annual average discharge per unit area, L/（s·km^2）） and the sediment transport modulus （defined as the annual suspended sediment transport per unit area, t/（yr km^2）） are introduced in this study to assess the changes in runoff and sediment yield for this watershed. The results show that the highest average monthly discharge during the study period in the Kuye River is 66.23 m^3/s in August with an average monthly sediment concentration of 88.9 kg/m^3. However, the highest average monthly sediment concentration during the study period in the Kuye River is 125.34 kg/m^3 and occurs in July, which has an average discharge of 42.6 m^3/s that is much less than the average monthly discharge in August. It is found that both the runoff modulus and sediment transport modulus at Wenjiachuan GS on the Kuye River has a clear downward trend. During the summer season from July to August, the sediment transport modulus at Wenjiachuan GS is much higher than those at Toudaoguai and Longmen GSs on the Yellow River. The easily erodible loess in the Kuye River watershed and the sparse vegetation are responsible for the extremely high sediment yield from the Kuye River watershed. The analyses of the grain size distribution of suspended load in the Kuye River are presented. The average monthly median grain size of suspended load in the Kuye River is largest in February and then decreases until June. In July, the average monthly median grain size of suspended load approaches another peak and decreases until September. Then, the median grain size of suspended load starts to increase until February of the following year. However, the average monthly median grain size of suspended load in the Yellow River at Toudaoguai and Longmen GSs is the smallest between early summer and late fall The median grain size in the Yellow River starts to increase in November and approaches the largest size in January.     

TritiogenicHe in groundwater in Takaoka

³He/⁴He ratios up to 3.5 times the ratio of atmospheric He were found in groundwater samples. The³He enrichment can be attributed to radiogenic³He produced by in-situ beta-decay of³H. This shows that tritiogenic³He is accumulating in confined waters. From tritiogenic³He and³H concentrations, ages of groundwaters can be calculated. Detection of tritiogenic³He gives a tool to trace a tritium contamination which occurred in the past and cannot be assessed only by the³H counting method.     

Variations in trace gas concentrations in different environments in India

Observations of trace gases (SO₂, NH₃, NO₂ and O₃) were made during the period 1981 to 1984 at 6 different locations representative of urban industrial, urban, nonurban, thermal power plant and marine environment. Diurnal variations of the trace gases were studied in an urban environment. Except in the urban industrial environment, the concentration of NH₃ was found in the range of background values. Also, the average concentrations of NO₂ and O₃ at the different environments were in the order of background values. However, the concentrations of SO₂ were substantially higher by about 7 times, in urban industrial and thermal power plant environments. The diurnal variations of SO₂, NH₃ and NO₂ showed anitphase relationship with surface temperature at the urban environment station which is relatively free of industrial pollution. Discussion is centred on trace gas variations in different environments in India together with the values reported for various countries in the world.     

Projected changes in flood indices in selected catchments in Poland in the 21st century

The aim of this study is to estimate likely changes in flood indices under a future climate and to assess the uncertainty in these estimates for selected catchments in Poland. Precipitation and temperature time series from climate simulations from the EURO-CORDEX initiative for the periods 1971–2000, 2021–2050 and 2071–2100 following the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 emission scenarios have been used to produce hydrological simulations based on the HBV hydrological model. As the climate model outputs for Poland are highly biased, post processing in the form of bias correction was first performed so that the climate time series could be applied in hydrological simulations at a catchment-scale. The results indicate that bias correction significantly improves flow simulations and estimated flood indices based on comparisons with simulations from observed climate data for the control period. The estimated changes in the mean annual flood and in flood quantiles under a future climate indicate a large spread in the estimates both within and between the catchments. An ANOVA analysis was used to assess the relative contributions of the 2 emission scenarios, the 7 climate models and the 4 bias correction methods to the total spread in the projected changes in extreme river flow indices for each catchment. The analysis indicates that the differences between climate models generally make the largest contribution to the spread in the ensemble of the three factors considered. The results for bias corrected data show small differences between the four bias correction methods considered, and, in contrast with the results for uncorrected simulations, project increases in flood indices for most catchments under a future climate.     

Changes in thermal extremes in Poland

Changes in thermal extremes of the climate of Poland in 1951–2010 are examined. Warm extremes have become more frequent, while cold extremes have become less frequent. In the warming climate of Poland, the increase in the number of extremely warm days in a year and the decrease in the number of extremely cold days in a year have been observed. Also the increase of the maximum number of consecutive hot days in a year and the decrease of the maximum number of consecutive very cold and extremely cold days in a year have been observed. However, the trends are not of ubiquitous statistic significance, as the natural variability is strong.     

Copper in natural waters in Transbaikalia

Cu concentrations in surface (river and lake) and subsurface waters are determined. The geographic pattern of Cu distribution in natural water is identified. This pattern is controlled by the difference between its concentrations in drained rocks and soils and the geochemical redox conditions of its migration. Territories with low, medium, and elevated Cu concentrations in natural waters are identified. The concentrations of Cu in natural waters of the region are found to be generally lower than the Clarke values.     

Hydrological changes in the Ganges system in Bangladesh in the post-Farakka period

Abstract

The basin area of the Ganges River in Bangladesh is extremely dependent on a regular water supply from upstream to meet requirements for agriculture, fisheries, navigation, salinity control, and domestic and industrial sectors. In 1975, India commissioned a barrage on the Ganges River at Farakka to divert a significant portion of the dry season flow in order to make the Calcutta Port navigable. Statistical analyses of discharge and water level data have been carried out to determine if significant changes have occurred in the hydrology of the Ganges system in Bangladesh in the post-Farakka period. Siltation of the Gorai River (an offtake of the Ganges River) has also been examined using the stage-discharge relationship and regression analysis. The analyses show that the diversion has caused considerable hydrological changes in the Ganges system in Bangladesh. The water supply in the dry season has been reduced substantially, while siltation of the Gorai River has increased significantly.     

Extreme Floods in Crimean Rivers in 2021

Water Resources - The results of studies of extreme floods in Crimean rivers in the summer of 2021 are presented. Analytical and historical generalization is made for the problem of the adverse...