Probing the amalgam: the relationship between science teachers’ content,pedagogical and pedagogical content knowledge

ABSTRACT

This Special Issue aims to present evidence about the relationships between content knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK); the development of these types of knowledge in novice and experienced secondary science teachers; and how CK, PK and/or PCK impact students’ learning. Since Shulman’s introduction of PCK as the feature that distinguishes the teacher from the content expert, researchers have attempted to understand, delineate, assess and/or develop the construct in pre- and in-service teachers. Accordingly, empirical findings are presented that permit further discussion. Outcomes permit post-hoc examination of a recent, collectively described, ‘consensus’ model of PCK, identifying strengths and potential issues. As we will illustrate, the relationship between CK, PK and PCK is central to this; that is, probing the hypothesis of pedagogical content knowledge as an ‘amalgam’ of content and pedagogical knowledge.     

Teacher pedagogical content knowledge,practice, and student achievement†

ABSTRACT

In this exploratory study, we attempted to measure potential changes in teacher knowledge and practice as a result of an intervention, as well as trace such changes through a theoretical path of influence that could inform a model of teacher professional knowledge. We created an instrument to measure pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), studied the impact of a two-year professional development intervention, explored the relationships among teacher variables to attempt to validate a model of teacher professional knowledge, and examined the relationship of teacher professional knowledge and classroom practice on student achievement. Teacher professional knowledge and skill was measured in terms of academic content knowledge (ACK), general pedagogical knowledge (GenPK), PCK and teacher practice. Our PCK instrument identified two factors within PCK: PCK-content knowledge and PCK-pedagogical knowledge. Teacher gains existed for all variables. Only GenPK had a significant relationship to teacher practice. ACK was the only variable that explained a substantial portion of student achievement. Our findings provide empirical evidence that we interpret through the lens of the model of teacher professional knowledge and skill, including PCK [Gess-Newsome, J. (2015). A model of teacher professional knowledge and skill including PCK: Results of the thinking from the PCK summit. In A. Berry, P. Friedrichsen, & J. Loughran (Eds.), Re-examining pedagogical content knowledge in science education (pp. 28–42). London: Routledge Press], highlighting the complexity of measuring teacher professional knowledge and skill.     

Enhancing pedagogical content knowledge in elementary science

In this study, five elementary teachers and a university researcher developed and implemented problem‐based learning (PBL) experiences in the context of science teaching and learning. Collaborative inquiry was adopted as a methodology, while a variety of qualitative methods were used to examine the engagement and development of teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). A PCK model is used as a framework to examine teachers’ professional knowledge growth in areas such as orientations to teaching science, knowledge of science curriculum, knowledge of students’ understanding of science, knowledge of assessment, and knowledge of instructional strategies. Implications for how teachers may be supported when adopting instructional innovations are discussed.     

Testing the Consensus Model: relationships among physics teachers’ professional knowledge,interconnectedness of content structure and student achievement

ABSTRACT

The structure and definition of professional knowledge is a continuing focus of science education research. In 2012, a pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) summit was held and it suggested a model of professional knowledge and skill including PCK, which was later often called the Consensus Model (Gess-Newsome, 2015. A model of teacher professional knowledge and skill including PCK: Results of the thinking from the PCK summit. In A. Berry, P. J. Friedrichsen, & J. Loughran (Eds.), Teaching and learning in science series. Re-examining pedagogical content knowledge in science education (1st ed., pp. 28–42). New York, NY: Routledge). The Consensus Model proposes a potential powerful framework for the relations among teachers’ different professional knowledge bases, but to date it has neither been investigated empirically nor systematically. In this study, we investigated the relationships suggested by the Consensus Model among different aspects of teachers’ knowledge and skill. A sample of 35 physics teachers and their classes participated in the investigation; both teachers and their students in these classes took paper-and-pencil tests. Furthermore, a lesson taught by each of the teachers was videotaped and analysed. The video analysis focused on the interconnectedness of the content structure of the lesson as representation of the in-class actions of the teachers. The interconnectedness is understood as a direct result of the application of professional knowledge of the teachers to their teaching. The teachers’ knowledge showed no significant influence on the interconnectedness of the lesson content structure. However, the results confirmed the influence of interconnectedness and certain aspects of professional knowledge on students’ outcomes. Therefore, interconnectedness of content structure could be verified as one indicator of teachers’ instructional quality.     

Development of evidence-based,student-learning-oriented rubrics for pre-service science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge

ABSTRACT

This paper offers pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) rubrics, that is, guides providing criteria for grading that are potentially applicable to a range of science topics and levels of teacher experience. Grading criteria applied in the rubrics are based on qualitative analyses of planned topic-specific professional knowledge (TSPK) and content knowledge (CK). Data were collected via three topic-specific vignettes from 239 pre-service science teachers (PSTs) starting a university-based, full-time, one year teacher education programme in England. The statements were analysed for TSPK and CK. PSTs’ statements proposed instructional strategies comprising demonstrations, explanations, illustrations and analogies, classified as Relevant to the science topics, others Irrelevant. Some Relevant strategies missed an aspect that may, if enacted, help students’ learning, so were judged Incomplete. Statements were also analysed for evidence of relevant and correct CK. CK and TSPK statements are aligned into grids, creating PCK rubrics. These demonstrate the precise nature of knowledge likely to lead to instruction that impacts positively on student learning. The rubrics present the possibility of PCK repertoires that contribute clarity and precision to teaching instruction. Although findings cannot be generalised, the methodology offers a strategy for supporting out-of-field teachers, and those seeking instructional strategies to add to existing repertoires.     

Use of the Rasch measurement model to explore the relationship between content knowledge and topic-specific pedagogical content knowledge for organic chemistry

Research has shown that a high level of content knowledge (CK) is necessary but not sufficient to develop the special knowledge base of expert teachers known as pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). This study contributes towards research to quantify the relationship between CK and PCK in science. In order to determine the proportion of the variance in PCK accounted for by the variance in CK, instruments are required which are valid and reliable as well as being unidimensional to measure person abilities for CK and PCK. An instrument consisting of two paper-and-pencil tests was designed to assess Grade 12 teachers CK and PCK in organic chemistry. We used the Rasch measurement model to convert raw score data into interval measures and to provide empirical evidence for the validity, reliability and unidimensionality of the tests. The correlation between CK and PCK was estimated as r = .66 (p < .001). We found evidence to suggest that while topic-specific PCK (TSPCK) develops with increasing teaching experience, high levels of CK can be acquired with limited teaching experience. These findings support the hypothesis that CK is a requirement for the development of TSPCK; proficiency in CK is, however, not necessarily associated with high levels of TSPCK.     

Content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge in Taiwanese and German mathematics teachers

In comparing content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of Taiwanese and German inservice mathematics teachers, the present study examines whether the two-dimensional structure of teachers' subject matter knowledge is cross-culturally invariant and whether differences in teacher education and in teacher selection are reflected in teachers' subject matter knowledge. The results confirm that CK and PCK represent two distinct, but correlated dimensions, even in teachers from completely different backgrounds. Taiwanese inservice teachers showed considerably higher CK and also higher PCK scores than German teachers. Teacher education and teacher selection should be considered important levers for reform in mathematics education.     

Pedagogical content knowledge of experts and novices—what knowledge do they activate when analyzing science lessons?

In the current debate on pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), the term is used to refer to the context‐specific knowledge that teachers activate when reflecting on practice. Against the background of this debate, we conducted an empirical study and sought to answer the question of which knowledge experts and novices activated in assessing a videotaped lesson in relation to its effectiveness for learning. Our assumption was that the participants activate their PCK as a blending of content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical knowledge (PK) as suggested by Shulman's amalgam thesis. The participants (9 experts and 9 novices) were shown a lesson on optics, in which the law of refraction (Snell's law) was being studied. In a subsequent interview, the participants were asked to analyze the observed lesson. A qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the interviews showed that experts activated both CK and PK intensively and in this respect they differed significantly from novices. Further analysis of the expert statements also proved that they do not activate their CK and PK in isolation, but instead combine both kinds of knowledge together, in line with Shulman's amalgam thesis. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 55: 44–67, 2018     

Professional knowledge affects action-related skills: The development of preservice physics teachers' explaining skills during a field experience

Professional knowledge is an important source of science teachers' actions in the classroom (e.g., personal professional content knowledge [pedagogical content knowledge, PCK] is the source of enacted PCK in the refined consensus model [RCM] for PCK). However, the evidence for this claim is ambiguous at best. This study applied a cross-lagged panel design to examine the relationship between professional knowledge and actions in one particular instructional situation: explaining physics. Pre- and post a field experience (one semester), 47 preservice physics teachers from four different universities were tested for their content knowledge (CK), PCK, pedagogical knowledge (PK), and action-related skills in explaining physics. The study showed that joint professional knowledge (the weighted sum of CK, PCK, and PK scores) at the beginning of the field experience impacted the development of explaining skills during the field experience (β = .38**). We interpret this as a particular relationship between professional knowledge and science teachers' action-related skills (enacted PCK): professional knowledge is necessary for the development of explaining skills. That is evidence that personal PCK affects enacted PCK. In addition, field experiences are often supposed to bridge the theory-practice gap by transforming professional knowledge into instructional practice. Our results suggest that for field experiences to be effective, preservice teachers should start with profound professional knowledge.     

Promoting the development of teacher professional knowledge: Integrating content and pedagogy in teacher education

The study investigates the explicit and integrated presentation of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), and content knowledge (CK) in teacher education. We compare learning environments to study whether only presenting PK and CK is sufficient for PCK development, whether only presenting PCK is sufficient for PK and CK development, and whether PCK development is affected by integrating PCK, PK and CK. We find that only presenting two knowledge domains to students is insufficient to develop the third one, and integrating knowledge domains does not impact PCK development.     

A new instrument for measuring pre-service biology teachers' pedagogical content knowledge: The PCK-IBI

Teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is highly important for effective design and implementation of school teaching. Thus, the current status, development and efficacy of this knowledge, its relationships with teaching quality parameters, and its impact on students' learning processes and success, require rigorous examination. Thoroughly validated, objective and reliable test instruments that are highly sensitive to changes in variables of proven knowledge-related relevance in teacher education are also required. Previous attempts to design such instruments for assessing science teachers' PCK have largely focused on mathematical content. Therefore, here we present an instrument (the pedagogical content knowledge in biology inventory, PCK-IBI), based on conceptualizations of teachers' professional competence, for assessing secondary school pre-service biology teachers' PCK. In a series of three evaluations and refinements it was tested with samples of N = 274 and N = 432 German pre-service as well as one sample of n = 65 German pre-service and n = 35 German in-service biology teachers. Item analysis, scale analysis and empirically obtained indicators of validity suggest that the final 34-item-version of the PCK-IBI is unidimensional, provides objective test scores and enables reliable and valid registration of pre-service biology teachers' PCK. Thus, hypotheses regarding specific aspects of the model on which the PCK-IBI's construction is based on are empirically supported. The results of our study provide empirical support for the instrument's potential utility.     

Science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge development during enactment of socioscientific curriculum materials

The purpose of this study is to provide insight into short-term professionalization of teachers regarding teaching socioscientific issues (SSI). The study aimed to capture the development of science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) for SSI teaching by enacting specially designed SSI curriculum materials. The study also explores indicators of stronger and weaker development of PCK for SSI teaching. Thirty teachers from four countries (Cyprus, Israel, Norway, and Spain) used one module (30–60 min lesson) of SSI materials. The data were collected through: (a) lesson preparation form (PCK-before), (b) lesson reflection form (PCK-after), (c) lesson observation table (PCK-in-action). The data analysis was based on the PCK model of Magnusson, Krajcik, and Borko (1999). Strong development of PCK for SSI teaching includes “Strong interconnections between the PCK components,” “Understanding of students' difficulties in SSI learning,” “Suggesting appropriate instructional strategies,” and “Focusing equally on science content and SSI skills.” Our findings point to the importance of these aspects of PCK development for SSI teaching. We argue that when professional development programs and curriculum materials focus on developing these aspects, they will contribute to strong PCK development for SSI teaching. The findings regarding the development in the components of PCK for SSI provide compelling evidence that science teachers can develop aspects of their PCK for SSI with the use of a single module. Most of the teachers developed their knowledge about students' understanding of science and instructional strategies. The recognition of student difficulties made the teacher consider specific teaching strategies which are in line with the learning objectives. There is an evident link between the development of PCK in instructional strategies and students' understanding of science for SSI teaching.     

Developing science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge

This article discusses the concept of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) within the context of science teaching. First, an attempt is made to define this concept within the tradition of research on teachers' craft knowledge and to identify possible purposes of research on PCK. From this point of view, recent research on science teaching is investigated. This investigation identifies teaching experience as the major source of PCK, whereas adequate subject-matter knowledge appears to be a prerequisite. Finally, an empirical study is presented which focuses on PCK with respect to a specific topic—that is, chemical equilibrium. The effects on teachers' PCK of participation in an in-service workshop and conducting an experimental course in classroom practice are reported. This leads to the identification of elements of PCK teachers can use to promote student understanding. It is concluded that research on topic-related PCK may complement research on student learning of specific topics. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 35: 673–695, 1998.     

Teacher pedagogical constructions: a reconfiguration of pedagogical content knowledge

A brief review of the history of pedagogical content knowledge reveals various definitions and conceptualizations of the construct, as well as some conceptual problems. A new conceptualization—teacher pedagogical constructions—is offered to address some of the problems associated with PCK. Seven assertions that comprise the new conceptualization are presented, explained and defended. These are: (1) PCK represents personal and private knowledge; (2) PCK is a collection of basic units called teacher pedagogical constructions; (3) teacher pedagogical constructions result mainly from planning, but also from the interactive and post‐active phases of teaching; (4) pedagogical constructions result from an inventive process that is influenced by the interaction of knowledge and beliefs from different categories; (5) pedagogical constructions constitute both a generalized event‐based and a story‐based kind of memory; (6) pedagogical constructions are topic specific; and (7) pedagogical constructions are (or should ideally be) labeled in multiple interesting ways that connect them to other categories and subcategories of teacher knowledge and beliefs. The proposed definition results from a reconceptualization of the nature of PCK as originally proposed, taking the results of major later studies and conceptualizations of PCK into consideration, appropriating new ideas about the structure of memory, and undertaking a reanalysis and presentation of data from a previous study. The article calls for viewing PCK as neither a subcategory of subject matter (subject matter knowledge for teaching) nor as a general generic form of knowledge. It presents a view of PCK as a collection of teacher professional constructions, as a form of knowledge that preserves the planning and wisdom of practice that the teacher acquires when repeatedly teaching a certain topic. Viewing PCK as a collection of TPCs, more precisely defining it, clarifying its relations to other knowledge and beliefs entities, and speculating about its development should facilitate future investigations of PCK.     

Not a stale metaphor: the continued relevance of pedagogical content knowledge for science research and education

Recently, theorists have raised concerns that pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) has become “a stale metaphor” that disregards diversity and equity, offers little to help teachers address students’ misconceptions, and portrays knowledge as “in the head” versus in practice. We refute these notions using grounded theory to specify ways one 7th-grade science teacher enacted PCK to advance student learning. With the definition of PCK as knowledge at the intersection of content and teaching, we utilised a framework for science PCK to explore instructional decision-making. Interviews conducted over three years revealed specific ways the teacher enacted PCK by designing and delivering instruction built on each of the seven conceptual science PCK components. The teacher enacted PCK to plan and deliver instruction that was responsive, adaptive, and considerate of changing needs of students and the changing classroom landscape. She infused PCK into instructional decision-making, instructional interactions, and mentoring of a student teacher, modelling the translation of educational theory into practice and habits of mind necessary for expert teaching. This enactment actively refutes Settlage’s critiques, and depicts PCK as a vibrant and effective stance for teaching that enhances learning.     

The impact of physics teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and motivation on students’ achievement and interest

This paper examines students’ achievement and interest and the extent to which they are predicted by teacher knowledge and motivation. Student achievement and interest are both considered desirable outcomes of school instruction. Teacher pedagogical content knowledge has been identified a major predictor of student achievement in previous research, whereas teacher motivation is considered a decisive factor influencing students’ interest. So far, however, most research either focused on knowledge or motivation (both on the students’ as well as the teachers’ side), rarely investigating them together or examining the instructional mechanisms through which the supposed effects of teacher knowledge and motivation are facilitated. In the present study, N = 77 physics teachers and their classes in Germany and Switzerland are investigated utilizing a multi‐method approach in combining data obtained from test‐instruments (teacher pedagogical content knowledge, student achievement) and questionnaires (teacher motivation, student interest, student perceived enthusiastic teaching) as well as videotaped instruction (cognitive activation rated by observers). Multi‐level structural equation modeling was used to support the assumptions that teacher pedagogical content knowledge positively predicted students’ achievement; the effect was mediated by cognitive activation. Teachers’ motivation predicted students’ interest which was mediated by enthusiastic teaching as perceived by students. Neither did teacher pedagogical content knowledge predict students’ interest, nor teacher motivation students’ achievement. This implies that in order to improve students’ cognitive as well as affective outcomes, both teachers’ knowledge but also their motivation need to be considered. © 2016 The Authors. Journal of Research in Science Teaching Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 54:586–614, 2017     

Preparing teachers to teach science and mathematics with technology: Developing a technology pedagogical content knowledge

Preservice teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) development was investigated with respect to integrating technology. Four components of PCK were adapted to describe technology-enhanced PCK (TPCK). The study examined the TPCK of student teachers in a multi-dimensional science and mathematics teacher preparation program that integrated teaching and learning with technology throughout the program. Five cases described the difficulties and successes of student teachers teaching with technology in molding their TPCK. Student teachers view of the integration of technology and the nature of the discipline was identified as an important aspect of the development of TPCK.     

Investigating the relationship between pre-service physics teachers' professional knowledge,self-concept,and interest

This study investigates the relationships between professional knowledge, self-concept, and interest of pre-service physics teachers. In order to support student learning and interest development alike, teachers need a profound professional knowledge and respective motivational orientations. Developing both professional knowledge and motivational orientations in teachers is therefore a key challenge of teacher education. Prior research has focused on the development of content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) within teacher education, but the role of motivational orientations such as self-concept and interest have mostly been neglected areas of study. As individuals develop domain-specific motivational orientations, they compare their achievement in an external frame to the achievement of their peers, and they compare their achievements in an internal frame across domains. The effects of these psychological processes on domain-specific motivational orientations are described by the generalized internal/external frame of reference model (GI/E model). We assessed the professional knowledge (CK and PCK) and motivational orientations (self-concept and interest) of N = 200 pre-service physics teachers from 12 teacher education institutes in Germany. To investigate the predictions of the GI/E model, we utilized structural equation modeling. In line with the GI/E model, the analysis revealed that pre-service teachers use social comparisons. Pre-service teachers with a higher CK/PCK also showed a higher CK/PCK self-concept. We also identified instances of internal comparisons as we found that a high level of CK corresponds with a lower PCK self-concept. While we could not identify the same effects from professional knowledge on interest, self-concept mediated the effects from professional knowledge on interest. The results suggest that interdependencies between professional knowledge and motivational orientation should be given more consideration in teacher education research and should also be addressed more explicitly in teacher education.